{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,27]],"date-time":"2026-02-27T10:41:24Z","timestamp":1772188884567,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":74,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,27]],"date-time":"2025-05-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1748304000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxins"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Harmful algal blooms can negatively impact freshwater, estuarine, and coastal marine systems globally and pose serious risks to water quality, human and ecosystem health, and food production. Algae can produce toxic compounds, directly interfere with aquaculture species through (e.g.,) the production of foam or mucilage, as well as causing diseases and disorders in fish, and can result in hypoxic conditions when the bloom senesces. Application of US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) registered algaecides can be effective, scalable, and inexpensive, but there is growing interest in plant- or bacterial-derived compounds that do not require the use of chemicals such as hydrogen peroxide or copper. The algaecide C7X1 is a plant-based organic algaecide that proves effective against a wide variety of algae, including harmful algal species such as Microcystis, Heterosigma, and Pseudo-nitzschia. Performance is comparable to other USEPA-registered algaecides, with low to moderate extracellular toxin release and a potential lifetime of weeks in treated waters. The mode of action is inhibition of photosynthesis, suggesting that direct off-target impacts on zooplankton and other organisms would be minimal.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins17060270","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,27]],"date-time":"2025-05-27T11:12:57Z","timestamp":1748344377000},"page":"270","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Laboratory-Scale Evaluation of a Plant-Based Algaecide for Harmful and Non-Harmful Algae"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8640-1205","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raphael M.","family":"Kudela","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Marine Sciences, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.1038\/s43017-024-00578-2","article-title":"Harmful Algal Blooms in Inland Waters","volume":"5","author":"Feng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Earth Environ."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101975","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2021.101975","article-title":"Marine Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) in the United States: History, Current Status and Future Trends","volume":"102","author":"Anderson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Enevoldsen, H.O., Isensee, K., and Lee, Y.J. (2024). State of the Ocean Report 2024, UNESCO-IOC."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Anderson, D.M., Backer, L.C., Bouma-Gregson, K., Bowers, H.A., Bricelj, V.M., D\u2019Anglada, L., Deeds, J., Dortch, Q., and Doucette, G.J. (2024). Harmful Algal Research & Response: A National Environmental Science Strategy (HARRNESS), 2024\u20132034, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2011.10.025","article-title":"Pseudo-Nitzschia Physiological Ecology, Phylogeny, Toxicity, Monitoring and Impacts on Ecosystem Health","volume":"14","author":"Trainer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2015.12.007","article-title":"A Review of the Global Ecology, Genomics, and Biogeography of the Toxic Cyanobacterium, Microcystis spp.","volume":"54","author":"Harke","year":"2016","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.3390\/microbiolres14010012","article-title":"Heterosigma akashiwo, a Fish-Killing Flagellate","volume":"14","year":"2023","journal-title":"Microbiol. Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shikata, T., Yuasa, K., Kitatsuji, S., Sakamoto, S., Akita, K., Fujinami, Y., Nishiyama, Y., Kotake, T., Tanaka, R., and Yamasaki, Y. (2021). Superoxide Production by the Red Tide-Producing Chattonella marina Complex (Raphidophyceae) Correlates with Toxicity to Aquacultured Fishes. Antioxidants, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox10101635"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1995","DOI":"10.1080\/10643389.2013.803797","article-title":"Anabaena Flos-Aquae","volume":"44","author":"Agnihotri","year":"2014","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2007.04.012","article-title":"Accumulation of Cyanobacterial Toxins in Freshwater \u201cSeafood\u201d and Its Consequences for Public Health: A Review","volume":"150","author":"Ibelings","year":"2007","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2018.02.005","article-title":"Blurred Lines: Multiple Freshwater and Marine Algal Toxins at the Land-Sea Interface of San Francisco Bay, California","volume":"73","author":"Peacock","year":"2018","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miller, M.A., Kudela, R.M., Mekebri, A., Crane, D., Oates, S.C., Tinker, M.T., Staedler, M., Miller, W.A., Toy-Choutka, S., and Dominik, C. (2010). Evidence for a Novel Marine Harmful Algal Bloom: Cyanotoxin (Microcystin) Transfer from Land to Sea Otters. PLoS ONE, 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0012576"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2016.09.007","article-title":"Evidence of Freshwater Algal Toxins in Marine Shellfish: Implications for Human and Aquatic Health","volume":"59","author":"Gibble","year":"2016","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Woo, P.T.K., and Subasinghe, R.P. (2023). Diseases and disorders in fish due to harmful algal blooms. Climate Change on Diseases and Disorders of Finfish in Cage Culture, CABI. [3rd ed.].","DOI":"10.1079\/9781800621640.0000"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-70069-4_12","article-title":"Key Questions and Recent Research Advances on Harmful Algal Blooms in Relation to Nutrients and Eutrophication","volume":"Volume 232","author":"Glibert","year":"2018","journal-title":"Global Ecology and Oceanography of Harmful Algal Blooms"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5519","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.7b05950","article-title":"Mitigating the Expansion of Harmful Algal Blooms Across the Freshwater-to-Marine Continuum","volume":"52","author":"Paerl","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111233","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2020.111233","article-title":"Laboratory-Scale Evaluation of Algaecide Effectiveness for Control of Microcystin-Producing Cyanobacteria from Lake Okeechobee, Florida (USA)","volume":"207","author":"Calomeni","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125691","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2025.125691","article-title":"Evaluating the Tolerance of Harmful Algal Bloom Communities to Copper","volume":"368","author":"Hennessey","year":"2025","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131279","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2023.131279","article-title":"Evaluation of Algaecide Effectiveness of Five Different Oxidants Applied on Harmful Phytoplankton","volume":"452","author":"Seoane","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4419-9860-6_1","article-title":"Pesticidal Copper (I) Oxide: Environmental Fate and Aquatic Toxicity","volume":"Volume 213","author":"Whitacre","year":"2011","journal-title":"Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology Volume 213"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2016.05.037","article-title":"Comparative Toxicity of Sodium Carbonate Peroxyhydrate to Freshwater Organisms","volume":"132","author":"Geer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2015.03.004","article-title":"Responses of Lyngbya wollei to Algaecide Exposures and a Risk Characterization Associated with Their Use","volume":"116","author":"Calomeni","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, H., Xing, R., Ji, X., Liu, Y., Chu, X., Gu, J., Wang, S., Wang, G., Zhao, S., and Cao, X. (2024). Natural Algicidal Compounds: Strategies for Controlling Harmful Algae and Application. Plant Physiol. Biochem., 215.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plaphy.2024.108981"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Coyne, K.J., Wang, Y., and Johnson, G. (2022). Algicidal Bacteria: A Review of Current Knowledge and Applications to Control Harmful Algal Blooms. Front. Microbiol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2022.871177"},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"641","article-title":"Warfare under the Waves: A Review of Bacteria-Derived Algaecidal Natural Products","volume":"4","author":"Yang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Prod. Rep."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Raveau, R., Fontaine, J., and Loun\u00e8s-Hadj Sahraoui, A. (2020). Essential Oils as Potential Alternative Biocontrol Products against Plant Pathogens and Weeds: A Review. Foods, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods9030365"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"594","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2018.07.115","article-title":"Algicidal Properties of Extracts from Cinnamomum camphora Fresh Leaves and Their Main Compounds","volume":"163","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, H., Huang, J., Yang, S., Li, J., and Zhou, L. (2020). Chemical Composition, Algicidal, Antimicrobial, and Antioxidant Activities of the Essential Oils of Taiwania flousiana Gaussen. Molecules, 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules25040967"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"B\u00e1csi, I., Gonda, S., Nemes-K\u00f3kai, Z., B-B\u00e9res, V., and Vasas, G. (2021). Horseradish Essential Oil as a Promising Anti-Algal Product for Prevention of Phytoplankton Proliferation and Biofouling. Plants, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/plants10081550"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114668","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpolbul.2023.114668","article-title":"Inhibitory Effect and Mechanism of a Compound Essential Oils on Cladophora Glomerata","volume":"188","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mar. Pollut. Bull."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17793","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-016-6755-5","article-title":"Inhibition of Five Natural Products from Chinese Herbs on the Growth of Chattonella Marina","volume":"23","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2013.05.064","article-title":"Effects of Different Algaecides on the Photosynthetic Capacity, Cell Integrity and Microcystin-LR Release of Microcystis aeruginosa","volume":"463\u2013464","author":"Zhou","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102272","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2022.102272","article-title":"Selection and Characterization of Plant-Derived Alkaloids with Strong Antialgal Inhibition: Growth Inhibition Selectivity and Inhibitory Mechanism","volume":"117","author":"Zhao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123403","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2020.123403","article-title":"A Review on Control of Harmful Algal Blooms by Plant-Derived Allelochemicals","volume":"401","author":"Zhu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lan, Y., Chen, Q., Gou, T., Sun, K., Zhang, J., Sun, D., and Duan, S. (2020). Algicidal Activity of Cyperus rotundus Aqueous Extracts Reflected by Photosynthetic Efficiency and Cell Integrity of Harmful Algae Phaeocystis Globosa. Water, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/w12113256"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2300569","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202300569","article-title":"Natural Algaecide Sphingosines Identified in Hybrid Straw Decomposition Driven by White-Rot Fungi","volume":"10","author":"Hu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2006.10.002","article-title":"Effect of Five Chinese Traditional Medicines on the Biological Activity of a Red-Tide Causing Alga\u2014Alexandrium tamarense","volume":"6","author":"Zhou","year":"2007","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1007\/s00128-009-9836-z","article-title":"Inhibition of the Growth of Alexandrium tamarense by Algicidal Substances in Chinese Fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata)","volume":"83","author":"Yang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1007\/s10811-007-9262-8","article-title":"The Inhibitory Effects of Garlic (Allium sativum) and Diallyl Trisulfide on Alexandrium tamarense and Other Harmful Algal Species","volume":"20","author":"Zhou","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phycol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1007\/s10811-014-0343-1","article-title":"Essential Oils, New Source of Algicidal Compounds","volume":"27","author":"Barani","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phycol."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"2371","article-title":"Chemical Composition of Volatile Oil from Two Emergent Plants and Their Algae Inhibition Activity","volume":"23","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pol. J. Environ. Stud."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120342","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2023.120342","article-title":"Most Treatments to Control Freshwater Algal Blooms Are Not Effective: Meta-Analysis of Field Experiments","volume":"243","author":"Anantapantula","year":"2023","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2015.01.025","article-title":"Application of Hyperspectral Remote Sensing to Cyanobacterial Blooms in Inland Waters","volume":"167","author":"Kudela","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1186\/2193-1801-2-491","article-title":"Identification of Harmful Cyanobacteria in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta and Clear Lake, California by DNA Barcoding","volume":"2","author":"Kurobe","year":"2013","journal-title":"SpringerPlus"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.15447\/sfews.2023v20iss4art6","article-title":"Status, Trends, and Drivers of Harmful Algal Blooms Along the Freshwater-to-Marine Gradient in the San Francisco Bay\u2013Delta System","volume":"20","author":"Kudela","year":"2023","journal-title":"SFEWS"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kudela, R.M., Senn, D.B., Richardson, E.T., Bouma-Gregson, K., Bergamaschi, B.A., and Sim, L. (2024). Evaluation and Refinement of Chlorophyll-a Algorithms for High-Biomass Blooms in San Francisco Bay (USA). Remote Sens., 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16061103"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.1007\/s12374-021-09322-5","article-title":"Allelopathic Inhibition Effects of Myriophyllum spicatum on Growths of Bloom-Forming Cyanobacteria and Other Phytoplankton Species in Coexistence Experiments","volume":"64","author":"Jeong","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Plant Biol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wagner, N.D., Osburn, F.S., Wang, J., Taylor, R.B., Boedecker, A.R., Chambliss, C.K., Brooks, B.W., and Scott, J.T. (2019). Biological Stoichiometry Regulates Toxin Production in Microcystis aeruginosa (UTEX 2385). Toxins, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins11100601"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Perez, J.L., and Chu, T. (2020). Effect of Zinc on Microcystis aeruginosa UTEX LB 2385 and Its Toxin Production. Toxins, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins12020092"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1529-8817.2010.00942.x","article-title":"Interstrain Variability in Physiology and Genetics of Heterosigma Akashiwo (Raphidophyceae) from the West Coast of North America","volume":"47","author":"Fredrickson","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Phycol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7278","DOI":"10.1111\/1462-2920.15615","article-title":"The Genetic and Ecophysiological Diversity of Microcystis","volume":"23","author":"Dick","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1399","DOI":"10.1111\/brv.12401","article-title":"Colony Formation in the Cyanobacterium Microcystis","volume":"93","author":"Xiao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.2989\/18142320609504143","article-title":"Intraspecific Variability: An Important Consideration in Forming Generalisations about Toxigenic Algal Species","volume":"28","author":"Burkholder","year":"2006","journal-title":"Afr. J. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2011.08.006","article-title":"Characterization and Deployment of Solid Phase Adsorption Toxin Tracking (SPATT) Resin for Monitoring of Microcystins in Fresh and Saltwater","volume":"11","author":"Kudela","year":"2011","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102707","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2024.102707","article-title":"An Effective Algaecide for the Targeted Destruction of Karenia brevis","volume":"138","author":"Hossain","year":"2024","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13514","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-015-4500-0","article-title":"Effects of Chitosan, Gallic Acid, and Algicide on the Physiological and Biochemical Properties of Microcystis Flos-Aquae","volume":"22","author":"Guo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119811","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2023.119811","article-title":"Comparative Assessment of Algaecide Performance on Freshwater Phytoplankton: Understanding Differential Sensitivities to Frame Cyanobacteria Management","volume":"234","author":"Erratt","year":"2023","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3260","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins6123260","article-title":"Effects of Hydrogen Peroxide and Ultrasound on Biomass Reduction and Toxin Release in the Cyanobacterium, Microcystis aeruginosa","volume":"6","author":"Meng","year":"2014","journal-title":"Toxins"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquabot.2005.02.006","article-title":"Rapid Light Curves: A Powerful Tool to Assess Photosynthetic Activity","volume":"82","author":"Ralph","year":"2005","journal-title":"Aquat. Bot."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5587","DOI":"10.1093\/emboj\/20.20.5587","article-title":"Oxidative Stress Inhibits the Repair of Photodamage to the Photosynthetic Machinery","volume":"20","author":"Nishiyama","year":"2001","journal-title":"EMBO J."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2016.02.014","article-title":"Lettuce Irrigated with Contaminated Water: Photosynthetic Effects, Antioxidative Response and Bioaccumulation of Microcystin Congeners","volume":"128","author":"Chia","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"1379","article-title":"Microcystin-LR Bioaccumulation and Depuration Kinetics in Lettuce and Arugula: Human Health Risk Assessment","volume":"566\u2013567","author":"Chia","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Melaram, R., Newton, A.R., and Chafin, J. (2022). Microcystin Contamination and Toxicity: Implications for Agriculture and Public Health. Toxins, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins14050350"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chorus, I., and Welker, M. (2021). Toxic Cyanobacteria in Water: A Guide to Their Public Health Consequences, Monitoring and Management, CRC Press. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1201\/9781003081449"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102522","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2023.102522","article-title":"What Happens in the Shadows\u2014Influence of Seasonal and Non-Seasonal Dynamics on Domoic Acid Monitoring in the Monterey Bay Upwelling Shadow","volume":"129","author":"Trapp","year":"2023","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1110","DOI":"10.1007\/s00267-014-0339-2","article-title":"The Effects of Three Chemical Algaecides on Cell Numbers and Toxin Content of the Cyanobacteria Microcystis aeruginosa and Anabaenopsis sp.","volume":"54","author":"Greenfield","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shahmohamadloo, R.S., Rudman, S.M., Clare, C.I., Westrick, J.A., Wang, X., De Meester, L., and Fryxell, J.M. (2024). Intraspecific Diversity Is Critical to Population-Level Risk Assessments. Sci. Rep., 14.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-76734-x"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2006.08.038","article-title":"A New Method for Evaluating Biological Safety of Environmental Water with Algae, Daphnia and Fish Toxicity Ranks","volume":"371","author":"Wei","year":"2006","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2008.11.005","article-title":"Prevention and Control of Karenia brevis Blooms","volume":"8","author":"Sengco","year":"2009","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2005GL023321","DOI":"10.1029\/2005GL023321","article-title":"Climate Anomalies Generate an Exceptional Dinoflagellate Bloom in San Francisco Bay","volume":"32","author":"Cloern","year":"2005","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1985","DOI":"10.4319\/lo.1994.39.8.1985","article-title":"Fluorometric Analysis of Chlorophyll a in the Presence of Chlorophyll b and Pheopigments","volume":"39","author":"Welschmeyer","year":"1994","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1111\/ppl.12931","article-title":"Comparative Excitation-emission Dependence of the FV \/ FM Ratio in Model Green Algae and Cyanobacterial Strains","volume":"166","author":"Santabarbara","year":"2019","journal-title":"Physiol. Plant."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4020-3218-9_11","article-title":"Pulse-Amplitude-Modulation (PAM) Fluorometry and Saturation Pulse Method: An Overview","volume":"Volume 19","author":"Papageorgiou","year":"2004","journal-title":"Chlorophyll a Fluorescence"},{"key":"ref_74","first-page":"687","article-title":"Photoinhibition of Photosynthesis in Natural Assemblages of Marine Phytoplankton","volume":"38","author":"Platt","year":"1980","journal-title":"J. Mar. Res."}],"container-title":["Toxins"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6651\/17\/6\/270\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:41:40Z","timestamp":1760031700000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6651\/17\/6\/270"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,27]]},"references-count":74,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6]]}},"alternative-id":["toxins17060270"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/toxins17060270","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6651"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6651","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,27]]}}}