{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,9]],"date-time":"2026-10-09T19:59:25Z","timestamp":1791575965151,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,14]],"date-time":"2025-07-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1752451200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"NHMRC Centre for Research Excellence","award":["1154503"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1154503"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxins"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The composition of Australian snake venoms is the least well-known of any continent. We characterised the venom proteome of the southern death adder Acanthophis antarcticus\u2014one of the world\u2019s most morphologically and ecologically divergent elapids. Using a combined bottom-up proteomic and venom gland transcriptomic approach employing reverse-phase chromatographic and gel electrophoretic fractionation strategies in the bottom-up proteomic workflow, we characterised 92.8% of the venom, comprising twelve different toxin identification hits belonging to seven toxin families. The most abundant protein family was three-finger toxins (3FTxs; 59.8% whole venom), consisting mostly of one long-chain neurotoxin, alpha-elapitoxin-Aa2b making up 59% of the venom and two proteoforms of another long-chain neurotoxin. Phospholipase A2s (PLA2s) were the second most abundant, with four different toxins making up 22.5% of the venom. One toxin was similar to two previous non-neurotoxic PLA2s, making up 16% of the venom. The remaining protein families present were CTL (3.6%), NGF (2.5%), CRiSP (1.8%), LAAO (1.4%), and AChE (0.8%). A. antarcticus is the first Australian elapid characterised that has a 3FTx dominant venom, a composition typical of elapids on other continents, particularly cobras Naja sp. The fact that A. antarcticus has a venom composition similar to cobra venom while having a viper-like ecology illustrates that similar venom expressions can evolve independently of ecology. The predominance of post-synaptic neurotoxins (3FTxs) and pre-synaptic neurotoxins (PLA2) is consistent with the neurotoxic clinical effects of envenomation in humans.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins17070352","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,14]],"date-time":"2025-07-14T09:56:54Z","timestamp":1752487014000},"page":"352","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["The Venom Proteome of the Ecologically Divergent Australian Elapid, Southern Death Adder Acanthophis antarcticus"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Theo","family":"Tasoulis","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Toxicology Research Group, University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW 2308, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"C. Ruth","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7599-671X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shaun","family":"Ellis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7391-1436","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tara L.","family":"Pukala","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0498-6642","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joanna","family":"Sumner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Museums Victoria, Melbourne, VIC 5053, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kate","family":"Murphy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Toxicology Research Group, University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW 2308, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9707-7631","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nathan","family":"Dunstan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Venom Supplies, Tanunda, Adelaide, SA 5352, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1519-7419","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Geoffrey K.","family":"Isbister","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Toxicology Research Group, University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW 2308, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1095-8312.1998.tb01513.x","article-title":"Molecular phylogeny of elapid snakes and a consideration of their biogeographic history","volume":"63","author":"Keogh","year":"1998","journal-title":"Biol. 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