{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,6]],"date-time":"2026-05-06T11:32:26Z","timestamp":1778067146559,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,13]],"date-time":"2025-09-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1757721600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Marie Sk\u0142odowska-Curie","award":["945413"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["945413"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxins"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The real-time, cost-effective detection of marine toxins like tetrodotoxin (TTX) remains a significant challenge for the scientific community. Traditional methods, including cell-based assays (CBAs), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and automated patch clamp (APC), are time-consuming, requiring expensive lab-based equipment and highly trained personnel. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs), lateral flow assays (LFAs), and immunosensors may not be suitable for toxin analogues. Thus, a simplified approach has been developed in this study, which involves the electrophysiological and electrochemical interrogation of N2a cells grown on ITO-coated glass electrodes by measuring extracellular field potentials (EFP) in conjunction with whole-cell patch clamp recordings and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurements both before and after incubation with TTX. The ITO substrate proved biocompatible and non-toxic for N2a cells. TTX exposure caused 102% inhibition in EFP values at 300 nM, confirmed by sodium current inhibition of 93% at 300 nM and 22% at 1 nM in patch clamp studies (IC50 = 6.7 nM). EIS measurements indicated concentration-dependent impedance changes in the range of 6\u2013300 nM. This research aims to provide a proof-of-concept for integration of electrophysiological and electrochemical approaches to simplify toxin detection systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins17090462","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,15]],"date-time":"2025-09-15T10:51:33Z","timestamp":1757933493000},"page":"462","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Cost-Effective and Rapid Detection of Tetrodotoxin Using Indium Tin Oxide Electrodes via In Vitro Electrophysiology and Electrochemistry"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4085-7140","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Naga Adithya Chandra","family":"Pandurangi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemical Engineering, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, 43007 Tarragona, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5462-5108","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manel M.","family":"Santafe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, C\/Sant Lloren\u00e7 21, 43201 Reus, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Angels","family":"Tudo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, C\/Sant Lloren\u00e7 21, 43201 Reus, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6269-9484","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nagihan","family":"Ozsoy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Reading School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Reading RG6 6UR, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7968-3929","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fransesc X.","family":"Sureda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, C\/Sant Lloren\u00e7 21, 43201 Reus, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5190-0522","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mark L.","family":"Dallas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Reading School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Reading RG6 6UR, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4259-7098","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ioanis","family":"Katakis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemical Engineering, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, 43007 Tarragona, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"e04752","article-title":"Risks for public health related to the presence of tetrodotoxin (TTX) and TTX analogues in marine bivalves and gastropods","volume":"15","author":"Knutsen","year":"2017","journal-title":"EFSA J."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"612","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jemermed.2008.09.024","article-title":"Seafood Intoxication by Tetrodotoxin: First Case in Europe","volume":"39","author":"Santos","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. 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