{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,22]],"date-time":"2025-10-22T22:15:29Z","timestamp":1761171329520,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":74,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,20]],"date-time":"2025-10-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1760918400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"PROAN S. A. Company, Universidad Aut\u00f3noma de Aguascalientes","award":["PIP\/SA 25-1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PIP\/SA 25-1"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003141","name":"Secretar\u00eda de Ciencia, Humanidades, Tecnolog\u00eda e Innovaci\u00f3n SECIHTI","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["227916\/209250"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["227916\/209250"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003141","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxins"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Aflatoxins (AFs) represent a major threat to poultry health and food safety due to their hepatotoxic, immunosuppressive, and carcinogenic effects. This study evaluated the chemoprotective potential of ethoxyquin (EQ) and N-acetylcysteine (NAC) in laying hens (80.8 and 33.3 mg\/kg BW\/d) exposed to chronic dietary AFs contamination (0.0\u20131.5 mg\/kg). A total of 360 Hy-Line W36 Leghorn hens were monitored over 72 weeks using biochemical and histopathological analyses of liver and kidney tissues. NAC significantly (p &lt; 0.01) increased hepatic and renal levels of reduced glutathione (GSH) and stimulated glutathione S-transferases (GST) and gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) activity, enhancing detoxification. Both agents significantly (p &lt; 0.05) reduced plasma ALT and AST levels, preserved total protein concentrations, and attenuated liver and kidney hypertrophy. EQ demonstrated antioxidant effects, stabilizing enzymatic responses and limiting tissue damage. Histopathological analysis revealed fewer structural alterations and cellular degeneration, especially in the NAC-treated group (p &lt; 0.01). These results suggest that NAC and EQ activate endogenous detoxification mechanisms, both enzymatic and non-enzymatic, effectively mitigating chronic aflatoxin toxicity. Their dietary supplementation offers a safe and sustainable chemoprotection strategy to support poultry health and productivity, particularly in regions facing high mycotoxin exposure.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins17100514","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,20]],"date-time":"2025-10-20T12:27:29Z","timestamp":1760963249000},"page":"514","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Protective Effect of Ethoxyquin and N-acetylcysteine on Biochemical and Pathological Changes Induced by Chronic Exposure to Aflatoxins in Laying Hens"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Mar\u00eda Carolina","family":"de-Luna-L\u00f3pez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Ciencias Veterinarias, Centro de Ciencias Agropecuarias, Universidad Aut\u00f3noma de Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes 20131, Mexico"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9354-0588","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Arturo Gerardo","family":"Valdivia-Flores","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Ciencias Veterinarias, Centro de Ciencias Agropecuarias, Universidad Aut\u00f3noma de Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes 20131, Mexico"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3793-4582","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Te\u00f3dulo","family":"Quezada-Trist\u00e1n","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Ciencias Veterinarias, Centro de Ciencias Agropecuarias, Universidad Aut\u00f3noma de Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes 20131, Mexico"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ra\u00fal","family":"Ortiz-Mart\u00ednez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Ciencias Veterinarias, Centro de Ciencias Agropecuarias, Universidad Aut\u00f3noma de Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes 20131, Mexico"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8321-6090","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Erika Janet","family":"Rangel-Mu\u00f1oz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Ciencias Veterinarias, Centro de Ciencias Agropecuarias, Universidad Aut\u00f3noma de Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes 20131, Mexico"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8261-5129","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emmanuel","family":"Hern\u00e1ndez-Valdivia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Ciencias Veterinarias, Centro de Ciencias Agropecuarias, Universidad Aut\u00f3noma de Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes 20131, Mexico"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0030-8630","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Esther","family":"Albarr\u00e1n-Rodr\u00edguez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Medicina Veterinaria, Centro Universitario de Ciencias Biol\u00f3gicas Agr\u00edcolas, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, Jalisco 45110, Mexico"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Elizabeth","family":"de Santiago-D\u00edaz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Ciencias Veterinarias, Centro de Ciencias Agropecuarias, Universidad Aut\u00f3noma de Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes 20131, Mexico"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"113","article-title":"Aflatoxins in poultry feed: Present status and future concerns","volume":"4","author":"Fawaz","year":"2022","journal-title":"SVU-IJAS"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2281","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2021.1960794","article-title":"Hepatotoxicity of food-borne mycotoxins: Molecular mechanism, anti-hepatotoxic medicines and target prediction","volume":"62","author":"Ruan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food. Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1181","DOI":"10.1080\/1828051X.2022.2101389","article-title":"The efficacy of bentonite and zeolite in reducing aflatoxin B1 toxicity on production performance and intestinal and hepatic health of broiler chickens","volume":"21","author":"Alharthi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ital. J. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2021.113148","article-title":"Total flavonoids of Rhizoma Drynariae protect hepatocytes against aflatoxin B1-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis in broiler chickens","volume":"230","author":"Lin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1007\/s12550-024-00566-x","article-title":"Aflatoxins and fumonisins co-contamination effects on laying hens and use of mycotoxin detoxifiers as a mitigation strategy","volume":"41","author":"Ochieng","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mycotoxin Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"K\u00f6vesi, B., Cserh\u00e1ti, M., Erd\u00e9lyi, M., Z\u00e1ndoki, E., M\u00e9zes, M., and Balogh, K. (2020). Lack of dose- and time-dependent effects of aflatoxin B1 on gene expression and enzymes associated with lipid peroxidation and the glutathione redox system in chicken. Toxins, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins12020084"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bozzo, G., Pugliese, N., Samarelli, R., Schiavone, A., Dimuccio, M.M., Circella, E., Bonerba, E., Ceci, E., and Camarda, A. (2023). Ochratoxin A and aflatoxin B1 detection in laying hens for omega 3-enriched eggs production. Agriculture, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture13010138"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"(2025, June 20). Food and Agriculture Organization. FAO. Available online: https:\/\/www.fao.org\/poultry-production-products\/socio-economic-aspects\/economic-aspects\/es\/."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160014","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.160014","article-title":"Intensive poultry farming: A review of the impact on the environment and human health","volume":"858","author":"Piechowicz","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"txaf047","DOI":"10.1093\/tas\/txaf047","article-title":"Growth performance, carcass quality, immune response, and production economics of broiler chickens fed avocado seed meal under feed restriction","volume":"9","author":"Falowo","year":"2025","journal-title":"Transl. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rvsc.2010.04.011","article-title":"Aflatoxin B1 in poultry: Toxicology, metabolism and prevention","volume":"89","author":"Rawal","year":"2010","journal-title":"Res. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1093\/ps\/80.6.727","article-title":"Efficacy of N-acetylcysteine to reduce the effects of aflatoxin B1 intoxication in broiler chickens","volume":"80","author":"Valdivia","year":"2001","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"189","article-title":"Efficacy of N-acetylcysteine on aflatoxicosis in rabbits","volume":"17","author":"Eraslan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Pol. J. Environ. Stud."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"585931","article-title":"Ethoxyquin: An antioxidant used in animal feed","volume":"2013","author":"Augustyniak","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"EFSA FEEDAP Panel (EFSA Panel on Additives, Products or Substances used in Animal Feed), Bampidis, V., Azimonti, G., Bastos, M.L., Christensen, H., Dusemund, B., Fa\u0161mon Durjava, M., Kouba, M., L\u00f3pez-Alonso, M., and L\u00f3pez Puente, S. (2022). Scientific Opinion on the safety and efficacy of a feed additive consisting of ethoxyquin (6-ethoxy-1,2-dihydro-2,2,4-trimethylquinoline) for all animal species (FEFANA asbl). EFSA J., 20, 7166.","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2022.7166"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Olariu, R.M., Fi\u0163, N.I., Bouari, C.M., and Nad\u0103\u015f, G.C. (2025). Mycotoxins in broiler production: Impacts on growth, immunity, vaccine efficacy, and food safety. Toxins, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins17060261"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1622","DOI":"10.3382\/ps.2010-00763","article-title":"Effects of aflatoxin chronic intoxication in renal function of laying hens","volume":"89","author":"Valdivia","year":"2010","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Okasha, H., Song, B., and Song, Z. (2024). Hidden hazards revealed: Mycotoxins and their masked forms in poultry. Toxins, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins16030137"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101306","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cofs.2025.101306","article-title":"Mycotoxins hazard: The European view","volume":"63","author":"Pinton","year":"2025","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2015.01.060","article-title":"A multi-analyte LC\u2013MS\/MS method for the analysis of 23 mycotoxins in different sorghum varieties: The forgotten sample matrix","volume":"177","author":"Ediage","year":"2015","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"800","DOI":"10.1080\/19440049.2019.1595171","article-title":"Current trends in rapid tests for mycotoxins","volume":"36","author":"Nolan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Addit. Contam. Part A"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Janik, E., Niemcewicz, M., Podogrocki, M., Ceremuga, M., Gorniak, L., Stela, M., and Bijak, M. (2021). The existing methods and novel approaches in mycotoxins\u2019 detection. Molecules, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26133981"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zabiulla, I., Malathi, V., Swamy, H.V.L.N., Naik, J., Pineda, L., and Han, Y. (2021). The efficacy of a smectite-based mycotoxin binder in reducing aflatoxin B1 toxicity on performance, health and histopathology of broiler chickens. Toxins, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins13120856"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Alternative Medicine Review (AMR) (2003). AMR Monographs, Volume 1. N-Acetylcysteine, Thorne Research, Inc."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1080\/10915810490502041","article-title":"Impact of 30-day oral dosing with N-acetyl-l-cysteine on sprague-dawley rat physiology","volume":"23","author":"Arfsten","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v9.i1.125","article-title":"N-acetylcysteine attenuates alcohol-induced oxidative stress in the rat","volume":"9","author":"Ozaras","year":"2003","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hua, Z., Liu, R., Chen, Y., Liu, G., Li, C., Song, Y., Cao, Z., Li, W., Li, W., and Lu, C. (2021). Contamination of aflatoxins induces severe hepatotoxicity through multiple mechanisms. Front. Pharmacol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2020.605823"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alameri, M.M., Kong, A.S., Aljaafari, M.N., Ali, H.A., Eid, K., Sallagi, M.A., Cheng, W.H., Abushelaibi, A., Lim, S.E., and Loh, J.Y. (2023). Aflatoxin contamination: An overview on health issues, detection and management strategies. Toxins, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins15040246"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vairetti, M., Di Pasqua, L.G., Cagna, M., Richelmi, P., Ferrigno, A., and Berardo, C. (2021). Changes in glutathione content in liver diseases: An update. Antioxidants, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox10030364"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ikeda, Y., and Fujii, J. (2023). The emerging roles of \u03b3-glutamyl peptides produced by \u03b3-glutamyltransferase and the glutathione synthesis system. Cells, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells12242831"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"655","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.115.224626","article-title":"Prevention of aflatoxin B1 hepatoxicity by dietary selenium is associated with inhibition of cytochrome p450 isozymes and up-regulation of 6 selenoprotein genes in chick liver","volume":"146","author":"Sun","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Petkova, T., and Milanova, A. (2021). Absorption of N-acetylcysteine in healthy and Mycoplasma gallisepticum-infected chickens. Vet. Sci., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci8110244"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Iskusnykh, I.Y., Kryl\u2019skii, E.D., Brazhnikova, D.A., Popova, T.N., Shikhaliev, K.S., Shulgin, K.K., Matasova, L.V., Popov, S.S., Zhaglin, D.A., and Zakharova, A.A. (2021). Novel antioxidant, deethylated ethoxyquin, protects against carbon tetrachloride induced hepatotoxicity in rats by inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasome activation and apoptosis. Antioxidants, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox10010122"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"961","DOI":"10.1093\/ps\/76.7.961","article-title":"Effect of Santoquin and oxidized fat on liver and intestinal glutathione in broilers","volume":"76","author":"Wang","year":"1997","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104368","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psj.2024.104368","article-title":"Substituting ethoxyquin with tea polyphenols and propyl gallate enhanced feed oxidative stability, broiler hepatic antioxidant capacity and gut health","volume":"103","author":"Xiao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mrrev.2018.10.002","article-title":"Aflatoxin B1 metabolism: Regulation by phase I and II metabolizing enzymes and chemoprotective agents","volume":"778","author":"Deng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mutat. Res.\u2013Rev. Mutat. Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1042\/bj2790385","article-title":"Ethoxyquin-induced resistance to aflatoxin B1 in the rat is associated with the expression of a novel alpha-class glutathione S-transferase subunit, Yc2, which possesses high catalytic activity for aflatoxin B1-8,9-epoxide","volume":"279","author":"Hayes","year":"1991","journal-title":"Biochem. J."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1093\/toxsci\/54.1.30","article-title":"Effects of dietary oltipraz and ethoxyquin on aflatoxin B1 biotransformation in non-human primates","volume":"54","author":"Bammler","year":"2000","journal-title":"Toxicol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1093\/toxsci\/62.1.54","article-title":"Induction of glutathione S-transferase activity and protein expression in brown bullhead (Ameiurus nebulosus) liver by ethoxyquin","volume":"62","author":"Henson","year":"2001","journal-title":"Toxicol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elbasuni, S.S., Ibrahim, S.S., Elsabagh, R., Nada, M.O., Elshemy, M.A., Ismail, A.K., Mansour, H.M., Ghamry, H.I., Ibrahim, S.F., and Alsaati, I. (2022). The preferential therapeutic potential of Chlorella vulgaris against aflatoxin-induced hepatic injury in quail. Toxins, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins14120843"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153983","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tox.2024.153983","article-title":"Aflatoxin B1-induced hepatotoxicity through mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and inflammation as central pathological mechanisms: A review of experimental evidence","volume":"509","author":"Moloi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Toxicology"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de Luna-L\u00f3pez, M.C., Valdivia-Flores, A.G., Rangel-Mu\u00f1oz, E.J., Hern\u00e1ndez-Valdivia, E., Quezada-Trist\u00e1n, T., Jaramillo-Ju\u00e1rez, F., and Ortiz-Mart\u00ednez, R. (2025). Time-dependent changes in performance, biochemistry, and histology in dairy calves with acute aflatoxicosis. Vet. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci12030273"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1692","DOI":"10.1124\/dmd.118.082958","article-title":"Emerging Kidney models to investigate metabolism, transport, and toxicity of drugs and xenobiotics","volume":"46","author":"Bajaj","year":"2018","journal-title":"Drug Metab. Dispos."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1613","DOI":"10.1007\/s00204-025-03987-4","article-title":"Human and rat renal proximal tubule in vitro models for ADME applications","volume":"99","author":"Klatt","year":"2025","journal-title":"Arch. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"125","article-title":"Comparative study of the concentration of reduced glutathione and the activity of gamma-glutamyl-transferase and glutathione transferase in liver and kidney of broilers and rats","volume":"33","author":"Quezada","year":"2002","journal-title":"Vet. Mex."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.3382\/ps\/pey358","article-title":"Water-soluble substances of wheat: A potential preventer of aflatoxin B1-induced liver damage in broilers","volume":"98","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1080\/03079459408418973","article-title":"Variations of clinical biochemical parameters of laying hens and broiler chickens fed aflatoxin-containing feed","volume":"23","author":"Fernandez","year":"1994","journal-title":"Avian Pathol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1080\/00071660500255968","article-title":"Effect of amount and source of supplemental dietary vegetable oil on broiler chickens exposed to aflatoxicosis","volume":"46","author":"Raju","year":"2005","journal-title":"Br. Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1576","DOI":"10.1093\/ps\/85.9.1576","article-title":"In vitro and in vivo assessment of humic acid as an aflatoxin binder in broiler chickens","volume":"85","author":"Casey","year":"2006","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1729","DOI":"10.1093\/carcin\/18.9.1729","article-title":"Mechanism of action of dietary chemoprotective agents in rat liver: Induction of phase I and II drug metabolizing enzymes and aflatoxin B1 metabolism","volume":"18","author":"Manson","year":"1997","journal-title":"Carcinogenesis"},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"47","article-title":"Liver protein synthesis in physiology and in disease states","volume":"5","author":"Lucidi","year":"2002","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.15406\/jbmoa.2023.11.00340","article-title":"Public health impact of aflatoxin","volume":"11","author":"Milki","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol. Mycol. Open Access"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Riahi, I., P\u00e9rez-Vendrell, A.M., Ramos, A.J., Brufau, J., Esteve-Garcia, E., Schulthess, J., and Marquis, V. (2021). Biomarkers of deoxyni-valenol toxicity in chickens with special emphasis on metabolic and welfare parameters. Toxins, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins13030217"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tieu, S., Charchoglyan, A., Paulsen, L., Wagter-Lesperance, L.C., Shandilya, U.K., Bridle, B.W., Mallard, B.A., and Karrow, N.A. (2023). N-acetylcysteine and its immunomodulatory properties in humans and domesticated animals. Antioxidants, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox12101867"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.9734\/ajob\/2024\/v20i11453","article-title":"N-acetyl cysteine and zinc sulfate attenuates acute crude oil-induced oxidative stress and testicular structural damage in male wistar rats","volume":"20","author":"Daubry","year":"2024","journal-title":"Asian J. Biol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103761","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psj.2024.103761","article-title":"Ethoxyquin attenuates enteric oxidative stress and inflammation by promoting cytokine expressions and symbiotic microbiota in heat-stressed broilers","volume":"103","author":"Elokil","year":"2024","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"2001","article-title":"Study of performance broiler chickens fed of contaminated wheat by aflatoxin and ammoniac","volume":"2","author":"Makinia","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Ad. Biol. Biomed. Res."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Subramaniam, S., Sabran, M.R., Stanslas, J., and Kirby, B.P. (2022). Effect of aflatoxin B1 exposure on the progression of depressive-like behavior in rats. Front. Nutr., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2022.1032810"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rvsc.2004.06.006","article-title":"Evaluation of pathological changes in broilers during chronic aflatoxin (50 and 100 ppb) and clinoptilolite exposure","volume":"78","author":"Ortatatli","year":"2005","journal-title":"Res. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.22579\/20112629.5","article-title":"Rendimiento productivo e h\u00edgado graso en tilapia h\u00edbrida (Oreochromis spp): Influencia de dos fuentes de l\u00edpidos","volume":"17","year":"2013","journal-title":"Orinoquia"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1313","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.20701","article-title":"Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis clinical research network. Design and validation of a histological scoring system for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease","volume":"41","author":"Kleiner","year":"2005","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109712","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2019.109712","article-title":"Toxicopathological effects of feeding aflatoxins B1 in broilers and its amelioration with indigenous mycotoxin binder","volume":"187","author":"Saleemi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"United States Food and Drug Administration (2022, January 14). Food Additives Permitted in Feed and Drinking Water of Animals, The Code of Federal Regulations, Available online: https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-21\/chapter-I\/subchapter-E\/part-573."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"(2022, January 14). Hy-Line. Available online: https:\/\/www.hyline.com\/spanish\/literatura\/w-36."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"National Research Council (NRC) (1994). Nutrient Requirements of Poultry, National Academic Press. [9th ed.]. Available online: https:\/\/scholar.google.com\/scholar_lookup?title=Nutrient%20Requirements%20of%20Poultry&publication_year=1994&."},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"688","article-title":"Association between Aspergillus flavus colonization and aflatoxins production in immature grains of maize genotypes","volume":"12","author":"Reyes","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Food Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"1","article-title":"Natural toxins","volume":"Volume 2","author":"Horwitz","year":"2000","journal-title":"Official Methods of Analysis of AOAC International"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1016\/0009-8981(85)90358-4","article-title":"A simple procedure for routine determination of aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase with pyridoxal phosphate","volume":"153","author":"Gella","year":"1985","journal-title":"Clin. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_69","first-page":"481","article-title":"International Federation of Clinical Chemistry (IFCC) Scientific Committee, Analytical Section: Approved recommendation (1985) on IFCC methods for the measurement of catalytic concentration of enzymes. Part 3. IFCC method for alanine aminotransferase (L-alanine: 2-oxoglutarate aminotransferase, EC 2.6.1.2)","volume":"24","author":"Bergmeyer","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Clin. Chem. Clin. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1016\/0003-2697(76)90326-2","article-title":"A fluorometric method for determination of oxidized and reduced glutathione in tissues","volume":"74","author":"Hissin","year":"1976","journal-title":"Anal. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7130","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(19)42083-8","article-title":"Glutathione S-transferases. The first enzymatic step in mercapturic acid formation","volume":"249","author":"Habig","year":"1974","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"Prophet, E.B., Mills, B., Arrington, J.B., and Sobin, L.H. (1994). Laboratory Methods in Histotechnology (Armed Forces Institute of Pathology), The American Registry of Pathology."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e10387","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.10387","article-title":"Comparing multiple comparisons: Practical guidance for choosing the best multiple comparisons test","volume":"8","author":"Midway","year":"2020","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1497","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyt179","article-title":"Calculating statistical power in mendelian randomization studies","volume":"42","author":"Brion","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Epidemiol."}],"container-title":["Toxins"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6651\/17\/10\/514\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,22]],"date-time":"2025-10-22T03:47:40Z","timestamp":1761104860000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6651\/17\/10\/514"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,20]]},"references-count":74,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10]]}},"alternative-id":["toxins17100514"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/toxins17100514","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6651"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-6651"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,20]]}}}