{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,4]],"date-time":"2026-11-04T16:52:15Z","timestamp":1793811135439,"version":"4.6.1"},"reference-count":77,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,9]],"date-time":"2025-12-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1765238400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Key Research and Development Special Project of Henan Province","award":["251111111300"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["251111111300"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxins"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Deoxynivalenol (DON), a mycotoxin produced by Fusarium species, severely contaminates grains and feed, posing a continuous threat to human and livestock health. In this study, the DON-degrading enzyme (DDE) gene from Devosia sp. JA3 was heterologously expressed in Escherichia coli. Enzyme kinetics revealed that DDE exhibited optimal activity at 37 \u00b0C and pH 7.0, with a Km of 0.32 mM and a Vmax of 563.3 nmol\/(min\u00b7mg). Under optimized conditions, DDE efficiently oxidized DON to 3-keto-DON, achieving a degradation rate of 82.51% within 12 h. Further investigation in C57BL\/6J mice showed that oral administration of 2 mg\/kg DON significantly reduced antioxidant capacity, caused liver damage, impaired intestinal barrier function, induced intestinal inflammation and apoptosis, and disrupted the gut microbiota. DDE treatment effectively alleviated these DON-induced effects by restoring antioxidant capacity, ameliorating liver injury, downregulating pro-inflammatory and apoptotic genes, upregulating barrier-related genes, and restoring the gut microbiota balance, thereby protecting intestinal health. These findings demonstrate DDE\u2019s excellent DON-degrading capacity and biosafety, providing new technical evidence for DON detoxification applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins17120588","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,9]],"date-time":"2025-12-09T09:02:50Z","timestamp":1765270970000},"page":"588","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Heterologous Expression, Enzymatic Characterization, and Ameliorative Effects of a Deoxynivalenol (DON)-Degrading Enzyme in a DON-Induced Mouse Model"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Haorui","family":"Zhou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biological Engineering, Henan University of Technology, Zhengzhou 450001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-7378-4178","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bingtao","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biological Engineering, Henan University of Technology, Zhengzhou 450001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuqing","family":"Peng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biological Engineering, Henan University of Technology, Zhengzhou 450001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiahao","family":"Mao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biological Engineering, Henan University of Technology, Zhengzhou 450001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-2829-9030","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xuelei","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biological Engineering, Henan University of Technology, Zhengzhou 450001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yongpeng","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450046, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yong","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biological Engineering, Henan University of Technology, Zhengzhou 450001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.1007\/s00204-010-0579-8","article-title":"Deoxynivalenol: Mechanisms of action, human exposure, and toxicological relevance","volume":"84","author":"Pestka","year":"2010","journal-title":"Arch. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gruber-Dorninger, C., Jenkins, T., and Schatzmayr, G. (2019). Global Mycotoxin Occurrence in Feed: A Ten-Year Survey. Toxins, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins11070375"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Biscoto, G.L., Salvato, L.A., Alvarenga, E.R., Dias, R.R.S., Pinheiro, G.R.G., Rodrigues, M.P., Pinto, P.N., Freitas, R.P., and Keller, K.M. (2022). Mycotoxins in Cattle Feed and Feed Ingredients in Brazil: A Five-Year Survey. Toxins, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins14080552"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Locatelli, S., Scarpino, V., Lanzanova, C., Romano, E., and Reyneri, A. (2022). Multi-Mycotoxin Long-Term Monitoring Survey on North-Italian Maize over an 11-Year Period (2011\u20132021): The Co-Occurrence of Regulated, Masked and Emerging Mycotoxins and Fungal Metabolites. Toxins, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins14080520"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1346","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2019.1571479","article-title":"Global occurrence of deoxynivalenol in food commodities and exposure risk assessment in humans in the last decade: A survey","volume":"60","author":"Mishra","year":"2020","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11464","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.9b04442","article-title":"Methionine and Its Hydroxyl Analogues Improve Stem Cell Activity to Eliminate Deoxynivalenol-Induced Intestinal Injury by Reactivating Wnt\/\u03b2-Catenin Signaling","volume":"67","author":"Zhou","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1093\/toxsci\/kfs266","article-title":"Modulation of Inflammatory Gene Expression by the Ribotoxin Deoxynivalenol Involves Coordinate Regulation of the Transcriptome and Translatome","volume":"131","author":"He","year":"2013","journal-title":"Toxicol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1080\/03601239009372697","article-title":"Distribution of deoxynivalenol in cerebral spinal fluid following administration to swine and sheep","volume":"25","author":"Prelusky","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Environ. Sci. health. Part. B Pestic. Food Contam. Agric. Wastes"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1080\/19440049.2013.861613","article-title":"Influence of temperature and pH on the degradation of deoxynivalenol (DON) in aqueous medium: Comparative cytotoxicity of DON and degraded product","volume":"31","author":"Mishra","year":"2014","journal-title":"Food Addit. Contam. Part A-Chem. Anal. Control Expo. Risk Assess."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1080\/02652039309374143","article-title":"The stability of deoxynivalenol and 3-acetyI deoxynivalenol to gamma irradiation","volume":"10","author":"Damoglou","year":"1993","journal-title":"Food Addit. Contam."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1080\/02652030903013252","article-title":"Assessment of deoxynivalenol (DON) adsorbents and characterisation of their efficacy using complementary in vitro tests","volume":"27","author":"Cavret","year":"2010","journal-title":"Food Addit. Contam. Part A-Chem. Anal. Control Expo. Risk Assess."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6445","DOI":"10.1021\/jf061008g","article-title":"Thermal degradation of the Fusarium mycotoxin deoxynivalenol","volume":"54","author":"Bretz","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1021\/jf00069a021","article-title":"Reduction in levels of deoxynivalenol in contaminated wheat by chemical and physical treatment","volume":"34","author":"Young","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126877","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2020.126877","article-title":"CotA laccase, a novel aflatoxin oxidase from Bacillus licheniformis, transforms aflatoxin B1 to aflatoxin Q1 and epi-aflatoxin Q1","volume":"325","author":"Guo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Zhang, H., Zhang, H., Qin, X., Wang, X., Wang, Y., Bin, Y., Xie, X., Zheng, F., and Luo, H. (2021). Biodegradation of Deoxynivalenol by Nocardioides sp. ZHH-013: 3-keto-Deoxynivalenol and 3-epi-Deoxynivalenol as Intermediate Products. Front. Microbiol., 12."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, J.W., Hassan, Y.I., Perilla, N., Li, X.-Z., Boland, G.J., and Zhou, T. (2016). Bacterial Epimerization as a Route for Deoxynivalenol Detoxification: The Influence of Growth and Environmental Conditions. Front. Microbiol., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2016.00572"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4951","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2021.1879730","article-title":"Microbial detoxification of mycotoxins in food and feed","volume":"62","author":"Xu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111276","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2020.111276","article-title":"Enzymatic degradation of deoxynivalenol by a novel bacterium, Pelagibacterium halotolerans ANSP101","volume":"140","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2015.09.003","article-title":"Toxicology of 3-epi-deoxynivalenol, a deoxynivalenol-transformation product by Devosia mutans 17-2-E-8","volume":"84","author":"He","year":"2015","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2009.02.037","article-title":"Transformation of trichothecene mycotoxins by microorganisms from fish digesta","volume":"290","author":"Guan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-011-3401-5","article-title":"Biological detoxification of the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol and its use in genetically engineered crops and feed additives","volume":"91","author":"Karlovsky","year":"2011","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Gao, X., Mu, P., Zhu, X., Chen, X., Tang, S., Wu, Y., Miao, X., Wang, X., Wen, J., and Deng, Y. (2020). Dual Function of a Novel Bacterium, Slackia sp. D-G6: Detoxifying Deoxynivalenol and Producing the Natural Estrogen Analogue, Equol. Toxins, 12."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, W.-J., Yuan, Q.-S., Zhang, Y.-B., Guo, M.-W., Gong, A.-D., Zhang, J.-B., Wu, A.-B., Huang, T., Qu, B., and Li, H.-P. (2016). Aerobic De-Epoxydation of Trichothecene Mycotoxins by a Soil Bacterial Consortium Isolated Using In Situ Soil Enrichment. Toxins, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins8100277"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1007\/0-306-46828-X_3","article-title":"Methanol dehydrogenase, a PQQ-containing quinoprotein dehydrogenase","volume":"35","author":"Anthony","year":"2000","journal-title":"Sub-Cell. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-002-1123-4","article-title":"Oxygenases without requirement for cofactors or metal ions","volume":"60","author":"Fetzner","year":"2002","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1042\/bj2340611","article-title":"Quinohaemoprotein alcohol dehydrogenase apoenzyme from Pseudomonas testosteroni","volume":"234","author":"Groen","year":"1986","journal-title":"Biochem. J."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-001-0851-1","article-title":"Quinoproteins: Structure, function, and biotechnological applications","volume":"58","author":"Matsushita","year":"2002","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.abb.2004.03.037","article-title":"Quinohemoprotein alcohol dehydrogenases: Structure, function, and physiology","volume":"428","author":"Toyama","year":"2004","journal-title":"Arch. Biochem. Biophys."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1106","DOI":"10.1111\/1751-7915.12874","article-title":"The enzymatic detoxification of the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol: Identification of DepA from the DON epimerization pathway","volume":"11","author":"Carere","year":"2018","journal-title":"Microb. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126703","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2020.126703","article-title":"A quinone-dependent dehydrogenase and two NADPH-dependent aldo\/keto reductases detoxify deoxynivalenol in wheat via epimerization in a Devosia strain","volume":"321","author":"He","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108834","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2022.108834","article-title":"A quinoprotein dehydrogenase from Pelagibacterium halotolerans ANSP101 oxidizes deoxynivalenol to 3-keto-deoxynivalenol","volume":"136","author":"Qin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carere, J., Hassan, Y.I., Lepp, D., and Zhou, T. (2018). The Identification of DepB: An Enzyme Responsible for the Final Detoxification Step in the Deoxynivalenol Epimerization Pathway in Devosia mutans 17-2-E-8. Front. Microbiol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2018.01573"},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"He, W.-J., Zhang, L., Yi, S.-Y., Tang, X.-L., Yuan, Q.-S., Guo, M.-W., Wu, A.-B., Qu, B., Li, H.-P., and Liao, Y.-C. (2017). An aldo-keto reductase is responsible for Fusarium toxin-degrading activity in a soil Sphingomonas strain. Sci. Rep., 7."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-010-2857-z","article-title":"Nocardioides sp. strain WSN05-2, isolated from a wheat field, degrades deoxynivalenol, producing the novel intermediate 3-epi-deoxynivalenol","volume":"89","author":"Ikunaga","year":"2011","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1007\/s12550-025-00601-5","article-title":"The PGC-1\u03b1\/SIRT3 pathway mediates the effect of DON on mitochondrial autophagy and liver injury in mice","volume":"41","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mycotoxin Res"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Segura-Wang, M., Grenier, B., Ilic, S., Ruczizka, U., Dippel, M., Buenger, M., Hackl, M., and Nagl, V. (2021). MicroRNA Expression Profiling in Porcine Liver, Jejunum and Serum upon Dietary DON Exposure Reveals Candidate Toxicity Biomarkers. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms222112043"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"883","DOI":"10.1007\/s12602-019-09597-8","article-title":"Dietary Probiotic Bacillus licheniformis H2 Enhanced Growth Performance, Morphology of Small Intestine and Liver, and Antioxidant Capacity of Broiler Chickens Against Clostridium perfringens-Induced Subclinical Necrotic Enteritis","volume":"12","author":"Zhao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Probiotics Antimicrob. Proteins"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8182","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.3c01035","article-title":"Lactoferrin Relieves Deoxynivalenol-Induced Oxidative Stress and Inflammatory Response by Modulating the Nrf2\/MAPK Pathways in the Liver","volume":"71","author":"Hu","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.4103\/0971-6580.121673","article-title":"Lipid metabolism disorders, lymphocytes cells death, and renal toxicity induced by very low levels of deoxynivalenol and fumonisin b1 alone or in combination following 7 days oral administration to mice","volume":"20","author":"Kouadio","year":"2013","journal-title":"Toxicol. Int."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jin, J., Huangfu, B., Xing, F., Xu, W., and He, X. (2023). Combined exposure to deoxynivalenol facilitates lipid metabolism disorder in high-fat-diet-induced obesity mice. Environ. Int., 182.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2023.108345"},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"444","article-title":"Serum and tissue aspartate and alanine aminotransferases activity of rats with vitamin A deficiency","volume":"48","author":"Leutskii","year":"1976","journal-title":"Ukr. Biokhimichnyi Zhurnal"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Skiepko, N., Przybylska-Gornowicz, B., Gajecka, M., Gajecki, M., and Lewczuk, B. (2020). Effects of Deoxynivalenol and Zearalenone on the Histology and Ultrastructure of Pig Liver. Toxins, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins12070463"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1076\/phbi.38.5.374.5966","article-title":"Biochemical and Haematological Changes Mediated by a Chloroform Extract of Prunus Africana Stem Bark in Rats","volume":"38","author":"Gathumbi","year":"2000","journal-title":"Pharm. Biol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135952","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2024.135952","article-title":"Low-dose deoxynivalenol exposure triggers hepatic excessive ferritinophagy and mitophagy mitigated by hesperidin modulated O-GlcNAcylation","volume":"480","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01688940","article-title":"Hematologic and immunologic toxicity of deoxynivalenol (DON)-contaminated diets to growing chickens","volume":"46","author":"Harvey","year":"1991","journal-title":"Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153689","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tox.2023.153689","article-title":"Selenomethionine protects the liver from dietary deoxynivalenol exposure via Nrf2\/PPAR\u03b3-GPX4-ferroptosis pathway in mice","volume":"501","author":"Fan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Toxicology"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1080\/02652030600988038","article-title":"Carry-over of Fusarium toxins (deoxynivalenol and zearalenone) from naturally contaminated wheat to pigs","volume":"24","author":"Goyarts","year":"2007","journal-title":"Food Addit. Contam. Part A-Chem. Anal. Control Expo. Risk Assess."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Omar, A.E., Al-Khalaifah, H.S., Mohamed, W.A.M., Gharib, H.S.A., Osman, A., Al-Gabri, N.A., and Amer, S.A. (2020). Effects of Phenolic-Rich Onion (Allium cepa L.) Extract on the Growth Performance, Behavior, Intestinal Histology, Amino Acid Digestibility, Antioxidant Activity, and the Immune Status of Broiler Chickens. Front. Vet. Sci., 7."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1580","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tiv.2009.07.015","article-title":"Development of a pig jejunal explant culture for studying the gastrointestinal toxicity of the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol: Histopathological analysis","volume":"23","author":"Castellote","year":"2009","journal-title":"Toxicol. Vitr."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hong, Q., Li, X., Lin, Q., Shen, Z., Feng, J., and Hu, C. (2022). Resveratrol Improves Intestinal Morphology and Anti-Oxidation Ability in Deoxynivalenol-Challenged Piglets. Animals, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani12030311"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wan, S., Sun, N., Li, H., Khan, A., Zheng, X., Sun, Y., and Fan, R. (2022). Deoxynivalenol damages the intestinal barrier and biota of the broiler chickens. BMC Vet. Res., 18.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-022-03392-4"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1002\/tcm.1770150606","article-title":"Chronic feeding study of deoxynivalenol in B6C3F1 male and female mice","volume":"15","author":"Iverson","year":"1995","journal-title":"Teratog. Carcinog. Mutagen."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1776","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114511004946","article-title":"Chronic ingestion of deoxynivalenol and fumonisin, alone or in interaction, induces morphological and immunological changes in the intestine of piglets","volume":"107","author":"Bracarense","year":"2012","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aninu.2017.12.004","article-title":"Gastrointestinal tract (gut) health in the young pig","volume":"4","author":"Pluske","year":"2018","journal-title":"Anim. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0765.1990.tb01038.x","article-title":"Measurement of interleukin-1\u03b1 and -1\u03b2 in gingival crevicular fluid: Implications for the pathogenesis of periodontal disease","volume":"25","author":"Masada","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Periodontal Res."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, X.-C., Zhang, Y.-F., Cao, L., Zhu, L., Huang, Y.-Y., Chen, X.-F., Chu, X.-Y., Zhu, D.-F., Rahman, S.U., and Feng, S.-B. (2019). Deoxynivalenol Induces Intestinal Damage and Inflammatory Response through the Nuclear Factor-\u03baB Signaling Pathway in Piglets. Toxins, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins11110663"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1322","DOI":"10.1126\/science.281.5381.1322","article-title":"The Bcl-2 Protein Family: Arbiters of Cell Survival","volume":"281","author":"Adams","year":"1998","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"689","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2019.05.026","article-title":"Deoxynivalenol induced apoptosis and inflammation of IPEC-J2 cells by promoting ROS production","volume":"251","author":"Kang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2459","DOI":"10.1080\/21655979.2021.1935136","article-title":"Pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ) alleviated sepsis-induced acute liver injury, inflammation, oxidative stress and cell apoptosis by downregulating CUL3 expression","volume":"12","author":"Wu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Bioengineered"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1038\/nri3430","article-title":"Role of the gut microbiota in immunity and inflammatory disease","volume":"13","author":"Kamada","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1080\/10937404.2017.1326071","article-title":"Impact of mycotoxins on the intestine: Are mucus and microbiota new targets?","volume":"20","author":"Robert","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Toxicol. Environ. Health-Part B-Crit. Rev."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00380-17","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00380-17","article-title":"Influence of the Gut Microbiota Composition on Campylobacter jejuni Colonization in Chickens","volume":"85","author":"Han","year":"2017","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, C., Huang, L., Wang, P., Liu, Q., and Wang, J. (2020). The Effects of Deoxynivalenol on the Ultrastructure of the Sacculus Rotundus and Vermiform Appendix, as Well as the Intestinal Microbiota of Weaned Rabbits. Toxins, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins12090569"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reddy, K.E., Jeong, J.Y., Song, J., Lee, Y., Lee, H.-J., Kim, D.-W., Jung, H.J., Kim, K.H., Kim, M., and Oh, Y.K. (2018). Colon Microbiome of Pigs Fed Diet Contaminated with Commercial Purified Deoxynivalenol and Zearalenone. Toxins, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins10030114"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"646","DOI":"10.1007\/s12275-014-4270-2","article-title":"Pyrosequencing-based Analysis of Fecal Microbial Communities in Three Purebred Pig Lines","volume":"52","author":"Pajarillo","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thomas, F., Hehemann, J.-H., Rebuffet, E., Czjzek, M., and Michel, G. (2011). Environmental and gut Bacteroidetes: The food connection. Front. Microbiol., 2.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2011.00093"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"869","DOI":"10.1097\/MCG.0000000000000924","article-title":"Postinfection Irritable Bowel Syndrome: The Links Between Gastroenteritis, Inflammation, the Microbiome, and Functional Disease","volume":"51","author":"Downs","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clin. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5157","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.8b01253","article-title":"Dietary Clostridium butyricum Induces a Phased Shift in Fecal Microbiota Structure and Increases the Acetic Acid-Producing Bacteria in a Weaned Piglet Model","volume":"66","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, F., Wang, J., Huang, L., Chen, H., and Wang, C. (2017). Effects of Adding Clostridium sp. WJ06 on Intestinal Morphology and Microbial Diversity of Growing Pigs Fed with Natural Deoxynivalenol Contaminated Wheat. Toxins, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins9120383"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saint-Cyr, M.J., Perrin-Guyomard, A., Houee, P., Rolland, J.-G., and Laurentie, M. (2013). Evaluation of an Oral Subchronic Exposure of Deoxynivalenol on the Composition of Human Gut Microbiota in a Model of Human Microbiota-Associated Rats. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0080578"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1079\/PNS2002207","article-title":"Regulation of short-chain fatty acid production","volume":"62","author":"Macfarlane","year":"2003","journal-title":"Proc. Nutr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120939","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2023.120939","article-title":"Gut microbiota-metabolic axis insight into the hyperlipidemic effect of lotus seed resistant starch in hyperlipidemic mice","volume":"314","author":"Zeng","year":"2023","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2021.08.041","article-title":"High-Fat Diet Promotes Colorectal Tumorigenesis Through Modulating Gut Microbiota and Metabolites","volume":"162","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-023-06466-x","article-title":"Gut microbial carbohydrate metabolism contributes to insulin resistance","volume":"621","author":"Takeuchi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huber-Ruano, I., Calvo, E., Mayneris-Perxachs, J., Rodriguez-Pena, M.M., Ceperuelo-Mallafre, V., Cedo, L., Nunez-Roa, C., Miro-Blanch, J., Arnoriaga-Rodriguez, M., and Balvay, A. (2022). Orally administered Odoribacter laneus improves glucose control and inflammatory profile in obese mice by depleting circulating succinate. Microbiome, 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-022-01306-y"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hiippala, K., Barreto, G., Burrello, C., Diaz-Basabe, A., Suutarinen, M., Kainulainen, V., Bowers, J.R., Lemmer, D., Engelthaler, D.M., and Eklund, K.K. (2020). Novel Odoribacter splanchnicus Strain and Its Outer Membrane Vesicles Exert Immunoregulatory Effects in vitro. Front. Microbiol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2020.575455"},{"key":"ref_77","first-page":"257","article-title":"Impact of heat shock step on bacterial transformation efficiency","volume":"5","author":"Rahimzadeh","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Res. Commun."}],"container-title":["Toxins"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6651\/17\/12\/588\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,9]],"date-time":"2025-12-09T10:06:38Z","timestamp":1765274798000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6651\/17\/12\/588"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,9]]},"references-count":77,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["toxins17120588"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/toxins17120588","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6651"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6651","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,9]]}}}