{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,21]],"date-time":"2026-01-21T23:13:11Z","timestamp":1769037191600,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,21]],"date-time":"2026-01-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1768953600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Royal Society International Exchange Grant","award":["ES\\R1\\211136"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ES\\R1\\211136"]}]},{"name":"CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxins"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The saw-scaled viper Echis carinatus, one of the \u201cBig Four\u201d causes of snakebites in India, is found from Sri Lanka to eastern Iraq. To investigate clinical reports regarding the limited efficacy of Indian polyvalent antivenom (IPAV) against envenomation in Echis carinatus sochureki (ECS) in northwestern India, we obtained 22 snakes from three locations in Rajasthan and identified 148\u2013174 toxin isoforms belonging to 21\u201325 toxin families in their venom using a bottom-up proteomics approach. All samples showed a high abundance of snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs), particularly SVMP class III. Other major components were phospholipases A2, L-amino-acid oxidases, snake venom serine proteases and snaclecs (C-type lectins). Variation in venom composition among locations in Rajasthan, compared to E. c. carinatus (ECC) from southern India, was primarily due to differences in the relative abundance of these toxin families. Recognition of all venom components by IPAV was poor at lower antivenom concentrations. Notably, SVMP classes II and III were poorly recognized at all venom-to-antivenom ratios in all ECS venoms, and a plasma clotting assay revealed poor neutralization of procoagulant activity. This collaborative study highlights the need for the development of regional antivenoms to effectively treat snakebites in northwestern India.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins18010054","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,21]],"date-time":"2026-01-21T08:48:08Z","timestamp":1768985288000},"page":"54","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The Venom Proteome and Immunorecognition Profile of Clinically Important Echis carinatus sochureki from Northwestern India Underscores the Need for Regionally Specific Antivenoms"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5914-010X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Akhilesh","family":"Kumar","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Jodhpur 342005, India"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-9294-3637","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alka","family":"Sahu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad 500007, India"},{"name":"Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, India"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0661-9854","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maya","family":"Gopalakrishnan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Jodhpur 342005, India"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5101-1100","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Avni","family":"Blotra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad 500007, India"},{"name":"Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, India"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-5192-8506","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vishal Kumar","family":"Rout","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad 500007, India"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1072-1699","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sourish","family":"Kuttalam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Ecology and Evolution at Bangor, School of Environmental and Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK"},{"name":"Captive & Field Herpetology Ltd., 13 Hirfron, Llaingoch, Holyhead LL65 1YU, UK"},{"name":"Society for Nature Conservation, Research and Community Engagement (CONCERN), Nalikul 712407, India"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2920-2939","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shibi","family":"Muralidar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad 500007, India"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1738-9046","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anita","family":"Malhotra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Ecology and Evolution at Bangor, School of Environmental and Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2316-3382","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Karthikeyan","family":"Vasudevan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad 500007, India"},{"name":"Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, India"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mohamed Abd El-Aziz, T., Soares, A.G., and Stockand, J.D. 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