{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,28]],"date-time":"2026-01-28T17:39:52Z","timestamp":1769621992447,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":126,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,26]],"date-time":"2026-01-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1769385600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100015690","name":"UNPAD","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["4303\/ B3\/DT.03.08\/2025"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["4303\/ B3\/DT.03.08\/2025"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100015690","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100015690","name":"UNPAD","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["3927\/UN6. RKT\/HK.07.00\/2025"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["3927\/UN6. RKT\/HK.07.00\/2025"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100015690","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxins"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Cardiovascular disease (CVD) continues to be the primary cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, underscoring the urgent need for novel therapeutic alternatives. In recent years, marine ecosystems have garnered increasing attention as a promising source of bioactive compounds with unique structural and pharmacological properties. Marine-derived toxins and venoms, including tetrodotoxin, \u03c9-conotoxins, anthopleurins, palytoxin, brevetoxin, aplysiatoxin, and asterosaponins, exert cardioprotective effects through diverse mechanisms such as modulation of ion channels, inhibition of sympathetic overactivity, antioxidative actions, and enhancement of myocardial contractility. These properties make them potential candidates for addressing various CVD manifestations, including arrhythmia, hypertension, ischemia\u2013reperfusion injury, and heart failure. However, despite their therapeutic promise, the clinical application of these marine compounds remains limited due to poor tissue selectivity, narrow therapeutic indices, proinflammatory activity, and limited metabolic stability. Structural modifications, advanced drug delivery platforms, and in vivo validation studies are crucial for overcoming these challenges. This review highlights the pharmacological actions, molecular targets, and cardiovascular relevance of selected marine toxins and venoms while also addressing key translational barriers. Advances in biotechnology and peptide engineering are enabling the safer and more targeted use of these compounds. Collectively, marine-derived toxins and venoms represent a largely untapped but highly promising frontier in cardiovascular drug discovery. Strategic research focused on elucidating mechanisms, optimizing delivery, and translating clinical applications will be critical to unlocking their full therapeutic potential.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins18020063","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,26]],"date-time":"2026-01-26T15:48:30Z","timestamp":1769442510000},"page":"63","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The Cardioprotective Potential of Marine Venom and Toxins"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-6230-2446","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Virginia Heaven Mariboto","family":"Siagian","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Pharmacy, Padjadjaran University, Sumedang 45363, Indonesia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7868-0075","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rina Fajri","family":"Nuwarda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis and Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Padjadjaran University, Sumedang 45363, Indonesia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.5334\/gh.1288","article-title":"The heart of the world","volume":"19","author":"Perel","year":"2024","journal-title":"Glob. 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