{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,25]],"date-time":"2026-08-25T12:19:41Z","timestamp":1787660381566,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":74,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,20]],"date-time":"2026-02-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1771545600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Science Foundation","award":["DEB 1638879"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DEB 1638879"]}]},{"name":"National Science Foundation","award":["1822417"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1822417"]}]},{"name":"National Science Foundation","award":["DEB 2141892"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DEB 2141892"]}]},{"name":"National Science Foundation","award":["DBI 2409901"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DBI 2409901"]}]},{"name":"National Science Foundation","award":["DEB 1638902"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DEB 1638902"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000057","name":"National Institute of General Medical Sciences of the National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["P20GM146584"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P20GM146584"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000057","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000057","name":"National Institute of General Medical Sciences of the National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["P20GM139769"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P20GM139769"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000057","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxins"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Our current understanding of snake venom is highly biased towards species known to be medically significant in human envenomations. This vastly under-represents the true evolutionary and ecological breadth of snake venom, with gaps spanning entire clades and unique lifestyles. As a result, many genera of rear-fanged snakes lack well-understood venom profiles despite these taxa composing around 65% of known extant snake species. Methodological challenges associated with venom extraction have long been a key reason responsible for the lack of venom research on this group. Modern advancements in venomics technologies have allowed researchers to overcome many of these challenges and investigate the venom components of understudied genera. The genus Coniophanes (black-striped snakes) presents an ideal system for investigating venom and the venom delivery system in a rear-fanged venomous species with well-documented accounts of human envenomations. We sequenced and annotated de novo transcriptomes of the Duvernoy\u2019s gland (DVG) for seven individuals across four species of Coniophanes (Dipsadidae) and confirmed toxin expression in representative venom proteomes. We assessed interspecific venom variation within this genus and further examined intraspecific venom variation within C. imperialis. We found that toxins account for 38.8% to 66% of the total DVG transcriptomes and that 18 toxin families are represented in this genus, with prominent expression of cystine-rich secretory proteins (CRiSPs) in three species and snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs) in all four species. In addition, we used diffusible iodine-based contrast-enhanced computed tomography (diceCT) to better understand the venom delivery system for C. fissidens, a widespread species within this genus, showcasing enlarged, grooved, rear fangs in close proximity to a prominent DVG. We provide the first ever characterization of the venom profiles of Coniophanes, highlight venom variation between and within species, and outline the venom delivery system of this understudied genus.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins18020108","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,20]],"date-time":"2026-02-20T13:08:23Z","timestamp":1771592903000},"page":"108","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Inter- and Intraspecific Venom Variation in the Reclusive Rear-Fanged Black-Striped Snakes (Coniophanes)"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-0005-8495","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"John Henry","family":"Fowler","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0110-435X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ramses Alejandro","family":"Rosales-Garc\u00eda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8229-5951","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rhett M.","family":"Rautsaw","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3702-5079","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael P.","family":"Hogan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA"},{"name":"Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology and Museum of Zoology (UMMZ), University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6209-6800","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Erich P.","family":"Hofmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA"},{"name":"Science Department, Cape Fear Community College, Wilmington, NC 28401, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9848-6595","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrew J.","family":"Mason","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA"},{"name":"Department of Evolution, Ecology and Organismal Biology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6195-1203","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ramon","family":"Nagesan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology and Museum of Zoology (UMMZ), University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4098-7279","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Miguel","family":"Borja","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Ciencias Biol\u00f3gicas, Universdad Ju\u00e1rez del Estado de Durango, G\u00f3mez Palacio 35010, Durango, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5695-5496","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luis","family":"Herrera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Investigaci\u00f3n en Ciencias Biolog\u00edcas y Ambientales de Honduras, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Aut\u00f3noma de Honduras, San Pedro Sula 21102, Honduras"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gamaliel","family":"Casta\u00f1eda-Gaytan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Ciencias Biol\u00f3gicas, Universdad Ju\u00e1rez del Estado de Durango, G\u00f3mez Palacio 35010, Durango, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4664-8246","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alison R.","family":"Davis Rabosky","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology and Museum of Zoology (UMMZ), University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0356-2178","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Darin R.","family":"Rokyta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2020-6992","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christopher L.","family":"Parkinson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"msac082","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/msac082","article-title":"Venom Gene Sequence Diversity and Expression Jointly Shape Diet Adaptation in Pitvipers","volume":"39","author":"Mason","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mol. 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