{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,2]],"date-time":"2026-03-02T10:00:23Z","timestamp":1772445623710,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,1]],"date-time":"2026-03-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1772323200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"British beet research organization"},{"name":"J. Joordens Zaadhandel BV"},{"name":"RAGT seeds"},{"name":"Lugden Hill Charity"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxins"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Festulolium hybrids are cool-season forage grasses that form symbiotic relationships with the fungus Epichlo\u00eb uncinata, which produces loline alkaloids that protect the host from herbivores. This study evaluated the nematotoxicity of shoot and root extracts of Festulolium loliaceum against the stubby root nematode Trichodorus primitivus. Methanolic root and shoot extracts from plants aged 8, 12, 16, and 20 weeks were tested in vitro at five concentrations (312.5\u20135000 \u00b5g mL\u22121) over 24, 48, and 72 h. Nematode immobility, mortality, and phytochemical profiles, including flavonoids, loline alkaloids, and phenols, were quantified. Extracts from shoots caused significant concentration and time-dependent immobility of T. primitivus (p = 0.001), reaching \u226590% at 5000 \u00b5g mL\u22121 after 72 h in 8\u201312-week-old plants. Endophyte presence enhanced nematotoxicity, where LD50 values for E+ roots were two-fold lower at 12 weeks and fifty-fold lower at 20 weeks compared with E\u2212 root extracts. Shoot extracts of E+ grass had the highest nematicidal activity at 8 weeks, with a significantly lower LD50 value than E\u2212 (p &lt; 0.05). Loline alkaloid concentrations increased with plant age, while flavonoids and phenols declined. Nematotoxicity of F. loliaceum extracts was strongly influenced by plant age and endophyte presence. Younger E+ shoots produced the most potent shoot extracts, whereas older plants produced the most potent root extracts. Flavonoid content was negatively correlated with shoot biomass (R = \u22120.94, p &lt; 0.001). Similarly, phenol content was negatively correlated to both root biomass (R = \u22120.79, p &lt; 0.001) and shoot biomass (R = \u22120.67, p &lt; 0.005).<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins18030125","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,2]],"date-time":"2026-03-02T08:51:57Z","timestamp":1772441517000},"page":"125","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Influence of Plant Age and Endophyte Status on the Nematotoxicity of Festulolium loliaceum to Trichodorus primitivus and Quantification of Active Phytochemicals"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-4875-3641","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nyambura G.","family":"Mwangi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Agriculture and Environment Department, Harper Adams University, Newport TF10 8NB, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Timothy J.","family":"Gillanders","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cropmark Seeds Ltd., 49 Manion Road, RD7, Christchurch 7677, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mark","family":"Stevens","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"British Beet Research Organisation, Centrum, Norwich Research Park, Colney Lane, Norwich NR4 7UG, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2669-7892","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alistair J. D.","family":"Wright","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"British Beet Research Organisation, Centrum, Norwich Research Park, Colney Lane, Norwich NR4 7UG, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1205-1249","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Simon G.","family":"Edwards","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Agriculture and Environment Department, Harper Adams University, Newport TF10 8NB, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7269-5054","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Martin C.","family":"Hare","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Agriculture and Environment Department, Harper Adams University, Newport TF10 8NB, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4774-5491","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matthew A.","family":"Back","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Agriculture and Environment Department, Harper Adams University, Newport TF10 8NB, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocontrol.2008.01.023","article-title":"Clavicipitaceous endophytes: Their ability to enhance resistance of grasses to multiple stresses","volume":"46","author":"Kuldau","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biol. 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