{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T01:37:17Z","timestamp":1791337037115,"version":"4.3.1"},"reference-count":92,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2010,8,10]],"date-time":"2010-08-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1281398400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxins"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Heat-stable enterotoxins are the most notable virulence factors associated with Staphylococcus aureus, a common pathogen associated with serious community and hospital acquired diseases. Staphylococcal enterotoxins (SEs) cause toxic shock-like syndromes and have been implicated in food poisoning. But SEs also act as superantigens that stimulate T-cell proliferation, and a high correlation between these activities has been detected. Most of the nosocomial S. aureus infections are caused by methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) strains, and those resistant to quinolones or multiresistant to other antibiotics are emerging, leaving a limited choice for their control. This review focuses on these diverse roles of SE, their possible correlations and the influence in disease progression and therapy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins2082117","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2010,8,10]],"date-time":"2010-08-10T11:31:12Z","timestamp":1281439872000},"page":"2117-2131","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":148,"title":["Multiple Roles of Staphylococcus aureus Enterotoxins: Pathogenicity, Superantigenic Activity, and Correlation to Antibiotic Resistance"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"2","author":[{"given":"Elena","family":"Ortega","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Area de Microbiolog\u00eda, Departamento de Ciencias de la Salud, Facultad de Ciencias Experimentales, Universidad de Ja\u00e9n, 23071-Ja\u00e9n, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hikmate","family":"Abriouel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Area de Microbiolog\u00eda, Departamento de Ciencias de la Salud, Facultad de Ciencias Experimentales, Universidad de Ja\u00e9n, 23071-Ja\u00e9n, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rosario","family":"Lucas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Area de Microbiolog\u00eda, Departamento de Ciencias de la Salud, Facultad de Ciencias Experimentales, Universidad de Ja\u00e9n, 23071-Ja\u00e9n, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Antonio","family":"G\u00e1lvez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Area de Microbiolog\u00eda, Departamento de Ciencias de la Salud, Facultad de Ciencias Experimentales, Universidad de Ja\u00e9n, 23071-Ja\u00e9n, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2010,8,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2005.09.013","article-title":"Antimicrobial resistance profile of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from raw meat: A research for methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)","volume":"18","author":"Pesavento","year":"2007","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2004.05.008","article-title":"Coagulase-positive staphylococci and Staphylococcus aureus in food products marketed in Italy","volume":"98","author":"Normanno","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-4557.2006.00079.x","article-title":"Detection of staphylococcal enterotoxin a from ricotta cheese by cell culture","volume":"29","author":"Normanno","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Food Qual."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1016\/0168-1605(89)90100-1","article-title":"Present state of knowledge on staphylococcal intoxication","volume":"9","author":"Genigeorgis","year":"1989","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0505.990502","article-title":"Food-related illness and death in United States","volume":"5","author":"Mead","year":"1999","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-1605(02)00232-5","article-title":"Emerging foodborne pathogens","volume":"78","author":"Tauxe","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2006.10.049","article-title":"Occurrence, characterization and antimicrobial resistance of enterotoxigenic Staphylococcus aureus isolated from meat and dairy products","volume":"115","author":"Normanno","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1016\/S0956-7135(02)00150-0","article-title":"Virulence and recovery of Staphylococcus aureus relevant to the food industry using improvements on traditional approaches","volume":"15","author":"Sandel","year":"2004","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-6968.2007.00772.x","article-title":"Sesquiterpene farnesol as a competitive inhibitor of lipase activity of Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"273","author":"Kuroda","year":"2007","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.1016\/S0740-0020(02)00180-6","article-title":"Usefulness of a two-step PCR procedure for detection and identification of enterotoxigenic staphylococci of bacterial isolates and food samples","volume":"20","author":"Martin","year":"2003","journal-title":"Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2006.10.050","article-title":"Characterization of Staphylococcus aureus strains associated with food poisoning outbreaks in France","volume":"115","author":"Hennekinne","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-1605(00)00377-9","article-title":"Staphylococcal enterotoxins","volume":"61","author":"Balaban","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3175","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.61.8.3175-3183.1993","article-title":"Lack of complete correlation between emetic and T-cell-stimulatory activities of staphylococcal enterotoxins","volume":"61","author":"Harris","year":"1993","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1016\/S1286-4579(99)80064-1","article-title":"The effects of antibiotic usage in food animals on the development of antimicrobial resistance of importance for humans in Campylobacter and Escherichia coli","volume":"1","author":"Aestrup","year":"1999","journal-title":"Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"700","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X-66.4.700","article-title":"Models of antimicrobial resistance and foodborne illness: Examining assumptions and practical applications","volume":"66","author":"Barber","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.1.5219.124-a","article-title":"Celbenin-resistant staphylococci","volume":"1","author":"Jevons","year":"1961","journal-title":"Br. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fm.2008.12.008","article-title":"Characterization for enterotoxin production, virulence factors, and antibiotic susceptibility of Staphylococcus aureus isolates from various foods in Portugal","volume":"26","author":"Pereira","year":"2009","journal-title":"Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micres.2005.05.002","article-title":"Investigation of aminoglycoside modifying enzyme genes in methicillin-resistant staphylococci","volume":"161","author":"Ardic","year":"2006","journal-title":"Microbiol. Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diagmicrobio.2007.12.015","article-title":"Community-associated methicillin resistant and methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus: skin and soft tissue infections in Hong Kong","volume":"61","author":"Ho","year":"2008","journal-title":"Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"781","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.10.4.781","article-title":"Methicillin resistance in staphylococci: molecular and biochemical basis and clinical implications","volume":"10","author":"Chambers","year":"1997","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patbio.2004.10.003","article-title":"Virulence and antibiotic susceptibility of Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated from various origins","volume":"52","author":"Blanchard","year":"2004","journal-title":"Pathol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diagmicrobio.2005.10.017","article-title":"Molecular characterization of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolated in Tunisia","volume":"55","author":"Nejma","year":"2006","journal-title":"Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"167","article-title":"An outbreak of food poisoning proved to be due to a yellow haemolytic Staphylococcus","volume":"4","author":"Dack","year":"1930","journal-title":"J. Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"849","DOI":"10.1128\/jb.79.6.849-856.1960","article-title":"Further serological studies of staphylococcal enterotoxin","volume":"79","author":"Casman","year":"1960","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1016\/0003-9861(59)90447-3","article-title":"Staphylococcal enterotoxin I. Purification","volume":"85","author":"Bergdoll","year":"1959","journal-title":"Arch. Biochem. Biophys."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1481","DOI":"10.1128\/jb.90.5.1481-1485.1965","article-title":"Identification of new enterotoxin as enterotoxin C","volume":"90","author":"Bergdoll","year":"1965","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1875","DOI":"10.1128\/jb.94.6.1875-1882.1967","article-title":"Identification of a fourth staphylococcal enterotoxin, enterotoxin D","volume":"94","author":"Casman","year":"1967","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.4.5.593-595.1971","article-title":"Identification of enterotoxin E","volume":"4","author":"Bergdoll","year":"1971","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1159\/000100856","article-title":"Diversity in Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxins","volume":"93","author":"Thomas","year":"2007","journal-title":"Chem. Immunol. Allergy"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2334","DOI":"10.1086\/420852","article-title":"Standard nomenclature for the superantigens expressed by Staphylococcus","volume":"189","author":"Lina","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4999","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00045-08","article-title":"Identification and characterization of two novel staphylococcal enterotoxins, types S and T","volume":"76","author":"Ono","year":"2008","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Easman, C.S.F., and Adlam, C. (1983). Staphylococci and Staphylococcal Infections, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3565(25)26663-0","article-title":"Pyrogenic effect of purified staphylococcal enterotoxin","volume":"142","author":"Clark","year":"1963","journal-title":"J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.22.1.62-68.1978","article-title":"Biological effects of staphylococcal enterotoxin A on human peripheral lymphocytes","volume":"22","author":"Langford","year":"1978","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Fischetti, V.A., Novick, R.P., Ferreti, J.J., Portnoy, D.A., and Rood, J.I. (2000). Gram Positive Pathogens, ASM Press."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1793","DOI":"10.1128\/JB.186.6.1793-1801.2004","article-title":"Accessory gene regulator control of staphylococcal enterotoxin D gene expression","volume":"186","author":"Tseng","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3337","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.66.7.3337-3348.1998","article-title":"Identification and characterization of staphylococcal enterotoxin types G and I from Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"66","author":"Munson","year":"1998","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"857","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.40.3.857-862.2002","article-title":"Detection of seg, seh, and sei genes in Staphylococcus aureus isolates and determination of the enterotoxin productivities of S. aureus isolates harboring seg, seh, or sei genes","volume":"40","author":"Omoe","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2462","DOI":"10.1002\/pmic.200700965","article-title":"Proteomic analysis of exoproteins expressed by enterotoxigenic Staphylococcus aureus strains","volume":"8","author":"Pocsfalvi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Proteomics"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1275","DOI":"10.1086\/503048","article-title":"Staphylococcus aureus carriers neutralize superantigens by antibodies specific for their colonizing strain: a potential explanation for their improved prognosis in severe sepsis","volume":"193","author":"Holtfreter","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5054","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.181.7.5054","article-title":"Immune cell activation by enterotoxin gene cluster (egc)-encoded and non-egc superantigens from Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"181","author":"Grumann","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-1605(97)01250-6","article-title":"Amino acid requirement for growth and enterotoxin production by Staphylococcus aureus in chemically defined media","volume":"36","author":"Onoue","year":"1997","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Doyle, M.P. (1989). Foodborne Bacterial Pathogens, Marcel Dekker, Inc."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"63","article-title":"Staphylococcus aureus and food poisoning","volume":"2","author":"Baron","year":"2003","journal-title":"Genet. Mol. Res."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1016\/S0016-5085(19)36408-X","article-title":"The morphologic consequence of acute exogenous staphylococci gastroenteritis on the gastric mucosa","volume":"19","author":"Palmer","year":"1951","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1331","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.135.2.1331","article-title":"Mast cell heterogeneity: Effects of neuroenteric peptides on histamine release","volume":"135","author":"Shanahan","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"897","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2958.1994.tb00481.x","article-title":"Investigation of the role of the disulphide bond in the activity and structure of staphylococcal enterotoxin C","volume":"13","author":"Hovde","year":"1994","journal-title":"Mol. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2133","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.63.6.2133-2140.1995","article-title":"Biological activities of staphylococcal enterotoxin type A mutants with N-terminal substitutions","volume":"63","author":"Harris","year":"1995","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.1.4.432","article-title":"Toxic shock syndrome","volume":"1","author":"Todd","year":"1988","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/164.4.711","article-title":"Effects of staphylococcal toxic shock syndrome toxin 1 on aortic endothelial cells","volume":"164","author":"Lee","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1142","DOI":"10.1086\/378514","article-title":"Effects of total body irradiation and cyclosporine A on the lethality of toxic shock syndrome toxin-1 in a rabbit model of toxic shock syndrome","volume":"188","author":"Dinges","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2978","DOI":"10.1002\/j.1460-2075.1995.tb07300.x","article-title":"Characterization of two distinct MHC class II binding sites in the superantigen staphylococcal enterotoxin A","volume":"14","author":"Abrahmsen","year":"1995","journal-title":"EMBO J."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1006\/cimm.1999.1571","article-title":"Cross-linking staphylococcal enterotoxin A bound to major histocompatibility complex class I is required for TNF-alpha secretion","volume":"197","author":"Wright","year":"1999","journal-title":"Cell. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.171.2.455","article-title":"The toxicity of staphylococcal enterotoxin B in mice is mediated by T cells","volume":"171","author":"Marrack","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1177\/09680519030090010601","article-title":"Synergistic and antagonistic interactions between LPS and superantigens","volume":"9","author":"Dalpke","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Endotoxin Res."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"792","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.141.3.792","article-title":"Regulation of MHC expression in vivo. Bacterial lipopolysaccharide induces class I and II MHC products in mouse tissues by a T cell-independent, cyclosporine sensitive mechanism","volume":"141","author":"Urmson","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1097\/01.bor.0000197998.50450.f6","article-title":"Kawasaki disease","volume":"18","author":"Falcini","year":"2006","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Rheumathol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1385","DOI":"10.1016\/0140-6736(93)92752-F","article-title":"Toxic shock syndrome toxin-secreting Staphylococcus aureus in Kawasaki syndrome","volume":"342","author":"Leung","year":"1993","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2249.2006.03015.x","article-title":"Development of serum IgM antibodies against superantigens of Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes in Kawasaki disease","volume":"143","author":"Matsubara","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1857971","article-title":"Evidence for the effects of a superantigen in rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"253","author":"Paliard","year":"1991","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1038\/371351a0","article-title":"Evidence for superantigen involvement in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus aetiology","volume":"371","author":"Conrad","year":"1994","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"814","DOI":"10.1067\/mai.2000.105528","article-title":"Evidence for a disease-promoting effect of Staphylococcus aureus-derived exotoxins in atopic dermatitis","volume":"105","author":"Bunikowski","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/0092-8674(89)90980-X","article-title":"The V beta-specific superantigen staphylococcal enterotoxin B: Stimulation of mature T cells and clonal deletion in neonatal mice","volume":"56","author":"White","year":"1989","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1038\/339221a0","article-title":"High-affinity binding of staphylococcal enterotoxins A and B to HLA-DR","volume":"339","author":"Fraser","year":"1989","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4210","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.86.11.4210","article-title":"Toxic shock syndrome toxin 1 binds to major histocompatibility complex class II molecules","volume":"86","author":"Scholl","year":"1989","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"811","DOI":"10.1126\/science.2524876","article-title":"V\u00df-specific stimulation of human Tcells by staphylococcal toxins","volume":"244","author":"Kappler","year":"1989","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1115","DOI":"10.1016\/0092-8674(90)90388-U","article-title":"Superantigens interact with MHC class II molecules outside of the antigen groove","volume":"62","author":"Dellabona","year":"1990","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/0167-5699(88)91189-9","article-title":"The Mls locus: new clues to a lingering mystery (news)","volume":"9","author":"Janeway","year":"1988","journal-title":"Immunol. Today"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4724","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00132-06","article-title":"Staphylococcal enterotoxin- like toxins U2 and V, two new staphylococcal superantigens arising from recombination within the enterotoxin gene cluster","volume":"74","author":"Thomas","year":"2006","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1016\/S1286-4579(01)01414-9","article-title":"Pathogenicity and resistance islands of staphylococci","volume":"3","author":"Novick","year":"2001","journal-title":"Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smim.2007.04.006","article-title":"TCR recognition of peptide\/MHC class II complexes and superantigens","volume":"19","author":"Sundberg","year":"2007","journal-title":"Semin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1038\/368711a0","article-title":"Three-dimensional structure of a human class II histocompatibility molecule complexed with superantigen","volume":"368","author":"Jardetzky","year":"1994","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1870","DOI":"10.1126\/science.7997880","article-title":"Toxic shock syndrome toxin-1 complexed with a class II major histocompatibility molecule HLA-DR1","volume":"266","author":"Kim","year":"1994","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/S1074-7613(01)00092-9","article-title":"Crystal structure of a superantigen bound to the high-affinity, zinc-dependent site on MHC class II","volume":"14","author":"Li","year":"2001","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3306","DOI":"10.1093\/emboj\/20.13.3306","article-title":"Crystal structure of a superantigen bound to MHC class II displays zinc and peptide dependence","volume":"20","author":"Petersson","year":"2001","journal-title":"EMBO J."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25356","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M603969200","article-title":"Crystal structure of staphylococcal enterotoxin I (SEI) in complex with a human major histocompatibility complex class II molecule","volume":"281","author":"Fernandez","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12156","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.92.26.12156","article-title":"Isolation of HLA-DR1. (staphylococcal enterotoxin A)2 trimers in solution","volume":"92","author":"Tiedemann","year":"1995","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3958","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.157.9.3958","article-title":"Cross-linking of MHC class II molecules by staphylococcal enterotoxin A is essential for antigen-presenting cell and T cell activation","volume":"157","author":"Tiedemann","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1196\/annals.1309.022","article-title":"Class II MHC-expressing myofibroblasts play a role in the immunopathogenesis associated with staphylococcal enterotoxins","volume":"1029","author":"Barrera","year":"2004","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8097","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.178.12.8097","article-title":"Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 production by intestinal myofibroblasts in response to staphylococcal enterotoxin a: Relevance to staphylococcal enterotoxigenic disease","volume":"178","author":"Pinchuk","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2267","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1462-5822.2007.00957.x","article-title":"Staphylococcal enterotoxin induces emesis through increasing serotonin release in intestine and it is downregulated by cannabinoid receptor 1","volume":"9","author":"Hu","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cell. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1832","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.38.5.1832-1838.2000","article-title":"Transfer of erythromycin resistance from poultry to human clinical strains of Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"38","author":"Khan","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2005.01.006","article-title":"Slime production, DNAse activity and antibiotic resistance of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from raw milk, pasteurized milk and ice cream samples","volume":"17","author":"Citak","year":"2006","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1128\/jb.158.2.513-516.1984","article-title":"Low-affinity penicillin binding protein associated with \u03b2-lactam resistance in Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"158","author":"Hartman","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.27.5.851","article-title":"Occurrence of a \u03b2-lactam-inducible penicillin-binding protein in methicillin-resistant staphylococci","volume":"27","author":"Ubukata","year":"1985","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1128\/jb.170.1.149-154.1988","article-title":"Identification of a Staphylococcus aureus transposon (Tn4291) that carries the methicillin resistance gene(s)","volume":"170","author":"Trees","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaper, J.B., and Hacker, J. (1999). Pathogenicity Islands and Other Mobile Virulence Elements, American Society for Microbiology Press.","DOI":"10.1128\/9781555818173"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.5507\/bp.2009.036","article-title":"Comaprison of the prevalence of genes coding for enterotoxins, exfoliatins, Panton-Valentine leukocidin and TSST-1 between methicillin-resistant and methicillin-susceptible isolates of Staphylococcus aureus at the University Hospital in Olomouc","volume":"153","author":"Sila","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biomed. Pap. Med. Fac. Univ. Palacky Olomouc Czech. Repub."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2007.04.006","article-title":"Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in foods of animal origin product in Italy","volume":"117","author":"Normanno","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6489","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.69.11.6489-6494.2003","article-title":"Methicillin (oxacillin)-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated from major food animals and their potential transmission to humans","volume":"69","author":"Lee","year":"2003","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1292\/jvms.67.107","article-title":"Characterization of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolated from retail raw chicken meat in Japan","volume":"67","author":"Kitai","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Vet. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1828","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1572-0241.2005.41510.x","article-title":"Nosocomial antibiotic-associated diarrhea associated with enterotoxin-producing strains of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"100","author":"Boyce","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J.Gastroenterol."}],"container-title":["Toxins"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6651\/2\/8\/2117\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T22:03:07Z","timestamp":1760220187000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6651\/2\/8\/2117"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2010,8,10]]},"references-count":92,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2010,8]]}},"alternative-id":["toxins2082117"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/toxins2082117","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6651"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6651","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2010,8,10]]}}}