{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T00:22:35Z","timestamp":1792110155374,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":132,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2010,8,18]],"date-time":"2010-08-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1282089600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxins"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is a Gram positive bacterium that is carried by about one third of the general population and is responsible for common and serious diseases. These diseases include food poisoning and toxic shock syndrome, which are caused by exotoxins produced by S. aureus. Of the more than 20 Staphylococcal enterotoxins, SEA and SEB are the best characterized and are also regarded as superantigens because of their ability to bind to class II MHC molecules on antigen presenting cells and stimulate large populations of T cells that share variable regions on the b chain of the T cell receptor. The result of this massive T cell activation is a cytokine bolus leading to an acute toxic shock. These proteins are highly resistant to denaturation, which allows them to remain intact in contaminated food and trigger disease outbreaks. A recognized problem is the emergence of multi-drug resistant strains of S. aureus and these are a concern in the clinical setting as they are a common cause of antibiotic-associated diarrhea in hospitalized patients. In this review, we provide an overview of the current understanding of these proteins.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins2082177","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2010,8,18]],"date-time":"2010-08-18T12:54:32Z","timestamp":1282136072000},"page":"2177-2197","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":470,"title":["Staphylococcal Enterotoxins"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"2","author":[{"given":"Irina V.","family":"Pinchuk","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555-0655, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ellen J.","family":"Beswick","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Genetics & Microbiology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Victor E.","family":"Reyes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of Pediatrics and Microbiology & Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555-0366, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2010,8,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.10.3.505","article-title":"Nasal Carriage of Staphylococcus aureus: Epidemiology, Underlying Mechanisms, and Associated Risks","volume":"10","author":"Kluytmans","year":"1997","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM200101043440102","article-title":"Nasal Carriage As a Source of Staphylococcus aureus Bacteremia","volume":"344","author":"Becker","year":"2001","journal-title":"Study Group. N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"501362:1","DOI":"10.1155\/2009\/501362","article-title":"Phenotypic and Genotypic Characterization of Staphylococcus aureus Strains From Italian Dairy Products","volume":"2009","author":"Morandi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-6968.1998.tb13278.x","article-title":"The Enterotoxin D Plasmid of Staphylococcus aureus Encodes a Second Enterotoxin Determinant (Sej)","volume":"168","author":"Zhang","year":"1998","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2958.1998.00947.x","article-title":"The Gene for Toxic Shock Toxin Is Carried by a Family of Mobile Pathogenicity Islands in Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"29","author":"Lindsay","year":"1998","journal-title":"Mol. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6839","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.00272-09","article-title":"Diverse Enterotoxin Gene Profiles Among Clonal Complexes of Staphylococcus aureus Isolates From the Bronx, New York","volume":"75","author":"Varshney","year":"2009","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chroma.2006.08.078","article-title":"Trends in Detection of Warfare Agents. Detection Methods for Ricin, Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B and T-2 Toxin","volume":"1133","author":"Ler","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. A"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1017","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(81)92186-3","article-title":"A New Staphylococcal Enterotoxin, Enterotoxin F, Associated with Toxic-Shock-Syndrome Staphylococcus aureus Isolates","volume":"1","author":"Bergdoll","year":"1981","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1375","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(72)92830-9","article-title":"Food-Poisoning Due to Staphylococcal Enterotoxin E","volume":"2","author":"Morris","year":"1972","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2003.10.002","article-title":"Use of Novel PCR Primers Specific to the Genes of Staphylococcal Enterotoxin G, H, I for the Survey of Staphylococcus aureus Strains Isolated From Food-Poisoning Cases and Food Samples in Taiwan","volume":"92","author":"Chen","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2793","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.71.5.2793-2795.2005","article-title":"Mass Outbreak of Food Poisoning Disease Caused by Small Amounts of Staphylococcal Enterotoxins A and H","volume":"71","author":"Ikeda","year":"2005","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.182.3.711","article-title":"Staphylococcal Enterotoxin A Has Two Cooperative Binding Sites on Major Histocompatibility Complex Class II","volume":"182","author":"Hudson","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1870","DOI":"10.1126\/science.7997880","article-title":"Toxic Shock Syndrome Toxin-1 Complexed with a Class II Major Histocompatibility Molecule HLA-DR1","volume":"266","author":"Kim","year":"1994","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4254","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.61.10.4254-4262.1993","article-title":"Characterization of Novel Type C Staphylococcal Enterotoxins: Biological and Evolutionary Implications","volume":"61","author":"Marr","year":"1993","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.163.1.6","article-title":"Cutting Edge: Trimolecular Interaction of TCR with MHC Class II and Bacterial Superantigen Shows a Similar Affinity to MHC:Peptide Ligands","volume":"163","author":"Redpath","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1937","DOI":"10.1021\/bi00577a013","article-title":"Purification and Some Physicochemical Properties of Staphylococcal Enterotoxin D","volume":"18","author":"Chang","year":"1979","journal-title":"Biochemistry"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.160.1.225","article-title":"Staphylococcal Enterotoxin D Is a Promiscuous Superantigen Offering Multiple Modes of Interactions with the MHC Class II Receptors","volume":"160","author":"Mehindate","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.175.2.415","article-title":"Identification of HLA-DR1 Beta Chain Residues Critical for Binding Staphylococcal Enterotoxins A and E","volume":"175","author":"Karp","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1301","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.175.5.1301","article-title":"Sequences in Both Class II Major Histocompatibility Complex Alpha and Beta Chains Contribute to the Binding of the Superantigen Toxic Shock Syndrome Toxin 1","volume":"175","author":"Braunstein","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1002\/prot.21388","article-title":"Superantigen Natural Affinity Maturation Revealed by the Crystal Structure of Staphylococcal Enterotoxin G and Its Binding to T-Cell Receptor Vbeta8.2","volume":"68","author":"Fernandez","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proteins"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6686","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.163.12.6686","article-title":"Staphylococcal Enterotoxin H Displays Unique MHC Class II-Binding Properties","volume":"163","author":"Nilsson","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25356","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M603969200","article-title":"Crystal Structure of Staphylococcal Enterotoxin I (SEI) in Complex with a Human Major Histocompatibility Complex Class II Molecule","volume":"281","author":"Fernandez","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8941","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.86.22.8941","article-title":"Interaction of Staphylococcus aureus Toxin \"Superantigens\" with Human T Cells","volume":"86","author":"Choi","year":"1989","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-1605(00)00377-9","article-title":"Staphylococcal Enterotoxins","volume":"61","author":"Balaban","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4S","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01540887","article-title":"Molecular Structure of Staphylococcus and Streptococcus Superantigens","volume":"15","author":"Schlievert","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1038\/368711a0","article-title":"3-Dimensional Structure of A Human Class-Ii Histocompatibility Molecule Complexed with Superantigen","volume":"368","author":"Jardetzky","year":"1994","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1177\/37.3.2521876","article-title":"An Immunocytochemical Study on Co-Localization of Cathepsin B and Atrial Natriuretic Peptides in Secretory Granules of Atrial Myoendocrine Cells of Rat Heart","volume":"37","author":"Watanabe","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Histochem. Cytochem."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1038\/nsb0694-358","article-title":"Crystal and Solution Structures of Superantigenic Staphylococcal Enterotoxins Compared","volume":"1","author":"Singh","year":"1994","journal-title":"Nat. Struct. Biol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1016\/S0960-9822(95)00047-9","article-title":"Superantigens. Gazing into the Crystal Ball","volume":"5","author":"Hsu","year":"1995","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3292","DOI":"10.1002\/j.1460-2075.1995.tb07336.x","article-title":"Crystal Structure of the Superantigen Staphylococcal Enterotoxin Type A","volume":"14","author":"Schad","year":"1995","journal-title":"EMBO J."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"769","DOI":"10.1016\/S0969-2126(01)00212-X","article-title":"Crystal Structure of the Superantigen Enterotoxin C2 From Staphylococcus aureus Reveals a Zinc-Binding Site","volume":"3","author":"Papageorgiou","year":"1995","journal-title":"Structure"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32212","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.271.50.32212","article-title":"The Co-Crystal Structure of Staphylococcal Enterotoxin Type A with Zn2+ at 2.7 A Resolution. Implications for Major Histocompatibility Complex Class II Binding","volume":"271","author":"Sundstrom","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6832","DOI":"10.1002\/j.1460-2075.1996.tb01074.x","article-title":"The Crystal Structure of Staphylococcal Enterotoxin Type D Reveals Zn2+-Mediated Homodimerization","volume":"15","author":"Sundstrom","year":"1996","journal-title":"EMBO J."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1006\/jmbi.1997.1577","article-title":"Crystal Structure of Microbial Superantigen Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B at 1.5 A Resolution: Implications for Superantigen Recognition by MHC Class II Molecules and T-Cell Receptors","volume":"277","author":"Papageorgiou","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"807","DOI":"10.1016\/S1074-7613(00)80646-9","article-title":"Three-Dimensional Structure of the Complex Between a T Cell Receptor Beta Chain and the Superantigen Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B","volume":"9","author":"Li","year":"1998","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4245","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.158.9.4245","article-title":"Functional Characterization of the Interaction Between the Superantigen Staphylococcal Enterotoxin A and the TCR","volume":"158","author":"Antonsson","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2567.1998.00493.x","article-title":"Molecular Characterization of the Putative T-Cell Receptor Cavity of the Superantigen Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B","volume":"94","author":"Garcia","year":"1998","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.175.2.387","article-title":"Mutations Defining Functional Regions of the Superantigen Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B","volume":"175","author":"Kappler","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"705","DOI":"10.1126\/science.2185544","article-title":"The Staphylococcal Enterotoxins and Their Relatives","volume":"248","author":"Marrack","year":"1990","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1080\/10826069708000072","article-title":"Staphylococcal Enterotoxins B and C. Structural Requirements for Superantigenic and Entertoxigenic Activities","volume":"27","author":"Bohach","year":"1997","journal-title":"Prep. Biochem. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"195","article-title":"Superantigens: Interaction of Staphylococcal Enterotoxins with MHC Class II Molecules","volume":"101","author":"Rich","year":"1990","journal-title":"Trans. Am. Clin. Climatol. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"63","article-title":"Staphylococcus aureus and Food Poisoning","volume":"2","author":"Baron","year":"2003","journal-title":"Genet. Mol. Res."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0505.990502","article-title":"Food-Related Illness and Death in the United States","volume":"5","author":"Mead","year":"1999","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"57","article-title":"Economic Costs and Trade Impacts of Microbial Foodborne Illness","volume":"50","author":"Buzby","year":"1997","journal-title":"World Health Stat. Q."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2004.03.016","article-title":"Phenotypic and Genotypic Characteristics of Staphylococcus aureus Isolates From Raw Bulk-Tank Milk Samples of Goats and Sheep","volume":"101","author":"Scherrer","year":"2004","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1016\/0168-1605(88)90057-8","article-title":"Estimation of Human Dose of Staphylococcal Enterotoxin A From a Large Outbreak of Staphylococcal Food Poisoning Involving Chocolate Milk","volume":"7","author":"Evenson","year":"1988","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-1605(01)00479-2","article-title":"Prevalence of Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcal Enterotoxins in Raw Pork and Uncooked Smoked Ham\u2014a Comparison of Classical Culturing Detection and RFLP-PCR","volume":"68","author":"Atanassova","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1965.tb11634.x","article-title":"Staphylococcal Enterotoxin","volume":"128","author":"Casman","year":"1965","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1007\/s15010-007-6268-8","article-title":"Prevalence of Enterotoxin Producing Staphylococcus aureus in Stools of Patients with Nosocomial Diarrhea","volume":"35","author":"Flemming","year":"2007","journal-title":"Infection"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1828","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1572-0241.2005.41510.x","article-title":"Nosocomial Antibiotic-Associated Diarrhea Associated with Enterotoxin-Producing Strains of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"100","author":"Boyce","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.2174\/1381612805666230109203812","article-title":"Methicillin-Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus - Molecular Basis, Novel Targets and Antibiotic Therapy","volume":"5","author":"Ehlert","year":"1999","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm. Des."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"(2004). National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) System Report, Data Summary From January 1992 Through June 2004, Issued October 2004. Am. J. Infect. Control, 32, 470\u2013485.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajic.2004.10.001"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1007357206672","article-title":"Enterotoxin and Toxic Shock Syndrome Toxin-1 Production of Methicillin Resistant and Methicillin Sensitive Staphylococcus aureus Strains","volume":"13","author":"Schmitz","year":"1997","journal-title":"Eur. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1016\/S0016-5085(19)33080-X","article-title":"Effect of Bacterial Enterotoxins on the Gastrointestinal Tract","volume":"65","author":"Banwell","year":"1973","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"114","article-title":"The Effect of Staphylococcal Enterotoxin on the Fine Structure of the Monkey Jejunum","volume":"18","author":"Merrill","year":"1968","journal-title":"Lab. Invest."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/S0016-5085(19)34264-7","article-title":"Paradoxical Intestinal Inhibitory Effects of Staphylococcal Enterotoxin","volume":"53","author":"Shemano","year":"1967","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"617","article-title":"Response of the Rhesus Monkey, Macaca Mulatta, to Continuously Infused Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B","volume":"25","author":"Stiles","year":"1971","journal-title":"Lab. Invest."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"492","DOI":"10.1097\/00000658-196309000-00016","article-title":"Role of Staphylococcal Enterotoxin in the Induction of Experimental Ileitis","volume":"158","year":"1963","journal-title":"Ann. Surg."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1044","DOI":"10.1016\/0140-6736(90)92500-H","article-title":"Foodborne Staphylococcal Illness","volume":"336","author":"Tranter","year":"1990","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1263","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.36.3.1263-1266.1982","article-title":"Emetic Action of Staphylococcal Enterotoxin A on Weanling Pigs","volume":"36","author":"Taylor","year":"1982","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1061","DOI":"10.1177\/153537020422901011","article-title":"Functional Piglet Model for the Clinical Syndrome and Postmortem Findings Induced by Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B","volume":"229","author":"Mani","year":"2004","journal-title":"Exp. Biol. Med. (Maywood)"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.44.2.234-240.1984","article-title":"Effects of Staphylococcal Enterotoxin A on the Rat Gastrointestinal Tract","volume":"44","author":"Beery","year":"1984","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3565(24)37772-9","article-title":"Epithelial Ion Transport and Barrier Abnormalities Evoked by Superantigen-Activated Immune Cells Are Inhibited by Interleukin-10 but Not Interleukin-4","volume":"287","author":"Lu","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther."},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"G29","article-title":"CD4+ T Cells Mediate Superantigen-Induced Abnormalities in Murine Jejunal Ion Transport","volume":"275","author":"McKay","year":"1998","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"G1094","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpgi.2000.279.5.G1094","article-title":"Superantigen Immune Stimulation Activates Epithelial STAT-1 and PI 3-K: PI 3-K Regulation of Permeability","volume":"279","author":"McKay","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1016\/S0016-5085(98)70136-2","article-title":"Suppression of T Cell-Mediated Injury in Human Gut by Interleukin 10: Role of Matrix Metalloproteinases","volume":"115","author":"Pender","year":"1998","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8097","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.178.12.8097","article-title":"Monocyte Chemoattractant Protein-1 Production by Intestinal Myofibroblasts in Response to Staphylococcal Enterotoxin a: Relevance to Staphylococcal Enterotoxigenic Disease","volume":"178","author":"Pinchuk","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2193","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.66.5.2193-2199.1998","article-title":"Changes in Murine Jejunal Morphology Evoked by the Bacterial Superantigen Staphylococcus aureus Enterotoxin B Are Mediated by CD4+ T Cells","volume":"66","author":"Benjamin","year":"1998","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.71.1.567-570.2003","article-title":"Induction of Emetic Response to Staphylococcal Enterotoxins in the House Musk Shrew (Suncus Murinus)","volume":"71","author":"Hu","year":"2003","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2267","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1462-5822.2007.00957.x","article-title":"Staphylococcal Enterotoxin Induces Emesis Through Increasing Serotonin Release in Intestine and It Is Downregulated by Cannabinoid Receptor 1","volume":"9","author":"Hu","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cell. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1086\/596065","article-title":"Immunization with a Nontoxic Mutant of Staphylococcal Enterotoxin A, SEAD227A, Protects Against Enterotoxin-Induced Emesis in House Musk Shrews","volume":"199","author":"Hu","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1874","DOI":"10.1126\/science.7997881","article-title":"Subsets of HLA-DR1 Molecules Defined by SEB and TSST-1 Binding","volume":"266","author":"Thibodeau","year":"1994","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1779","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.176.6.1779","article-title":"Identification of HLA-DR Alpha Chain Residues Critical for Binding of the Toxic Shock Syndrome Toxin Superantigen","volume":"176","author":"Fu","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"855","DOI":"10.1006\/bbrc.1994.1779","article-title":"Signalling Via MHC Class II Molecules Selectively Induces IL-1 Beta Over IL-1 Receptor Antagonist Gene Expression","volume":"201","author":"Mehindate","year":"1994","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1534","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1521-4141(199805)28:05<1534::AID-IMMU1534>3.0.CO;2-R","article-title":"Sequential Production of IL-2, IFN-Gamma and IL-10 by Individual Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B-Activated T Helper Lymphocytes","volume":"28","author":"Assenmacher","year":"1998","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2484","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.140.8.2484","article-title":"Binding of Staphylococcal Enterotoxin A to Accessory Cells Is a Requirement for Its Ability to Activate Human T Cells","volume":"140","author":"Carlsson","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1016\/0008-8749(85)90349-1","article-title":"Kinetics of IL-2 and Interferon-Gamma Production, Expression of IL-2 Receptors, and Cell Proliferation in Human Mononuclear Cells Exposed to Staphylococcal Enterotoxin A","volume":"96","author":"Carlsson","year":"1985","journal-title":"Cell. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_78","first-page":"210","article-title":"Regulation of Helper T Cell Responses to Staphylococcal Superantigens","volume":"12","author":"Cameron","year":"2001","journal-title":"Eur. Cytokine Netw."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5054","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.181.7.5054","article-title":"Immune Cell Activation by Enterotoxin Gene Cluster (Egc)-Encoded and Non-Egc Superantigens From Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"181","author":"Grumann","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1447","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.185.8.1447","article-title":"Transcytosis of Staphylococcal Superantigen Toxins","volume":"185","author":"Hamad","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4352","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.168.9.4352","article-title":"T Cell-Dependent Maturation of Dendritic Cells in Response to Bacterial Superantigens","volume":"168","author":"Muraille","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1007\/s000110050745","article-title":"Mouse Macrophages Release a Neutrophil Chemotactic Mediator Following Stimulation by Staphylococcal Enterotoxin Type A","volume":"50","author":"Desouza","year":"2001","journal-title":"Inflamm. Res."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1709","DOI":"10.1016\/S0041-0101(02)00237-4","article-title":"Evidence for the Involvement of a Macrophage-Derived Chemotactic Mediator in the Neutrophil Recruitment Induced by Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B in Mice","volume":"40","author":"Desouza","year":"2002","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"977","DOI":"10.1016\/S0198-8859(02)00436-6","article-title":"Human Duodenal Epithelial Cells Constitutively Express Molecular Components of Antigen Presentation but Not Costimulatory Molecules","volume":"63","author":"Byrne","year":"2002","journal-title":"Hum. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"783","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.37.6.783","article-title":"Small Bowel Transplantation in Children: an Immunohistochemical Study of Intestinal Grafts","volume":"37","author":"Fromont","year":"1995","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1002\/jlb.56.4.458","article-title":"Costimulatory Receptors for the Superantigen Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B on Human Vascular Endothelial Cells and T Cells","volume":"56","author":"Krakauer","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Leukoc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5627","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.161.10.5627","article-title":"Staphylococcal Enterotoxin A-Induced Injury of Human Lung Endothelial Cells and IL-8 Accumulation Are Mediated by TNF-Alpha","volume":"161","author":"Fujisawa","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3151","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.142.9.3151","article-title":"Binding of Staphylococcal Enterotoxin A to HLA-DR on B Cell Lines","volume":"142","author":"Fischer","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1079","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2222.2010.03464.x","article-title":"Staphylococcus aureus Enterotoxin B Facilitates Allergic Sensitization in Experimental Asthma","volume":"40","author":"Huvenne","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Allergy"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1097\/ACI.0b013e3282f4178f","article-title":"Role of Staphylococcal Superantigens in Upper Airway Disease","volume":"8","author":"Bachert","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1159\/000100897","article-title":"Role of Staphylococcal Superantigens in Airway Disease","volume":"93","author":"Bachert","year":"2007","journal-title":"Chem. Immunol. Allergy"},{"key":"ref_92","first-page":"RA290","article-title":"Chemotherapeutics Targeting Immune Activation by Staphylococcal Superantigens","volume":"11","author":"Krakauer","year":"2005","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Monit."},{"key":"ref_93","first-page":"17","article-title":"Pathology of Experimental Enterotoxemia. The in vivo Localization of Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B","volume":"20","author":"Normann","year":"1969","journal-title":"Lab. Invest."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3170","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.85.9.3170","article-title":"Protection Against the Staphylococcal Enterotoxin-Induced Intestinal Disorder in the Monkey by Anti-Idiotypic Antibodies","volume":"85","author":"Reck","year":"1988","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_95","first-page":"1","article-title":"The Effect of Staphylococcal Enterotoxin on the Epithelial Mucosubstances of the Small Intestine of Rhesus Monkeys","volume":"60","author":"Sheahan","year":"1970","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S231","DOI":"10.1093\/clinids\/11.Supplement_1.S231","article-title":"Response of Various Animal Species to Experimental Infection with Different Strains of Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"11","author":"Kohrman","year":"1989","journal-title":"Rev. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-4804(66)80070-7","article-title":"Acute Hemodynamic and Gastrointestinal Changes Produced by Staphylococcal Exotoxin and Enterotoxin in Dogs","volume":"6","author":"Kocandrle","year":"1966","journal-title":"J. Surg. Res."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1159","DOI":"10.3181\/00379727-131-34060","article-title":"Effects of Enterotoxin B on Intestinal Transport in Vivo","volume":"131","author":"Sullivan","year":"1969","journal-title":"Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/S0896-8411(03)00120-3","article-title":"Characterization of HLA DR2 and DQ8 Transgenic Mouse with a New Engineered Mouse Class II Deletion, Which Lacks All Endogenous Class II Genes","volume":"21","author":"Cheng","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Autoimmun."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1128\/mr.46.1.86-94.1982","article-title":"Bacterial Toxins: a Table of Lethal Amounts","volume":"46","author":"Gill","year":"1982","journal-title":"Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1097\/01.shk.0000209565.92445.7d","article-title":"Intranasal Exposure to Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B Elicits an Acute Systemic Inflammatory Response","volume":"25","author":"Rajagopalan","year":"2006","journal-title":"Shock"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1825","DOI":"10.1093\/intimm\/9.12.1825","article-title":"Immediate Responses of Leukocytes, Cytokines and Glucocorticoid Hormones in the Blood Circulation of Monkeys Following Challenge with Aerosolized Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B","volume":"9","author":"Weng","year":"1997","journal-title":"Int. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1544","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1009.040250","article-title":"Laboratory Exposures to Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B","volume":"10","author":"Rusnak","year":"2004","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1128\/jb.98.2.437-442.1969","article-title":"Effect of Formaldehyde on the Immunochemical and Biological Activity of Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B","volume":"98","author":"Silverman","year":"1969","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2880","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.63.8.2880-2885.1995","article-title":"Humoral Immunity to Aerosolized Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B (SEB), a Superantigen, in Monkeys Vaccinated with SEB Toxoid-Containing Microspheres","volume":"63","author":"Tseng","year":"1995","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2031","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.69.4.2031-2036.2001","article-title":"Mucosal Vaccination with Recombinantly Attenuated Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B and Protection in a Murine Model","volume":"69","author":"Stiles","year":"2001","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/S1521-6616(03)00066-4","article-title":"Generation of Protective Immunity by Inactivated Recombinant Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B Vaccine in Nonhuman Primates and Identification of Correlates of Immunity","volume":"108","author":"Boles","year":"2003","journal-title":"Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S161","DOI":"10.1080\/0960312031000102949","article-title":"Foodborne Diseases in Developing Countries: Aetiology, Epidemiology and Strategies for Prevention","volume":"13","author":"Kaferstein","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Health Res."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1200","DOI":"10.1007\/s10620-009-0886-1","article-title":"Staphylococcal Enterocolitis: Forgotten but Not Gone?","volume":"55","author":"Lin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Dig. Dis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhin.2004.03.023","article-title":"The Community Prevalence of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in Older People Living in Their Own Homes: Implications for Treatment, Screening and Surveillance in the UK","volume":"57","author":"Maudsley","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Hosp. Infect."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10223","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0401324101","article-title":"Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Hospitals and the Community: Stealth Dynamics and Control Catastrophes","volume":"101","author":"Cooper","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1007\/s00508-008-1125-z","article-title":"Foodborne Outbreaks, Austria 2007","volume":"121","author":"Much","year":"2009","journal-title":"Wien. Klin. Wochenschr."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S106","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1444-0903.2005.00984.x","article-title":"Recognition and Management of Staphylococcus aureus Toxin-Mediated Disease","volume":"35","author":"Murray","year":"2005","journal-title":"Intern. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1429","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM198012183032501","article-title":"Toxic-Shock Syndrome: Epidemiologic Features, Recurrence, Risk Factors, and Prevention","volume":"303","author":"Davis","year":"1980","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1337","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.010116-0","article-title":"Usefulness of Antimicrobial Resistance Pattern for Detecting PVL- or TSST-1-Producing Meticillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a French University Hospital","volume":"58","author":"Thouverez","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-065X.2008.00681.x","article-title":"The Bacterial Superantigen and Superantigen-Like Proteins","volume":"225","author":"Fraser","year":"2008","journal-title":"Immunol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4003","DOI":"10.2174\/092986709789352321","article-title":"Staphylococcus aureus: the Toxic Presence of a Pathogen Extraordinaire","volume":"16","author":"Larkin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Curr. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1007\/s10156-007-0551-6","article-title":"Neutralization of Staphylococcal Exotoxins in Vitro by Human-Origin Intravenous Immunoglobulin","volume":"13","author":"Yanagisawa","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Infect. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1871","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.67.4.1871-1877.1999","article-title":"Risk Factors in the Pathogenesis of Invasive Group A Streptococcal Infections: Role of Protective Humoral Immunity","volume":"67","author":"Basma","year":"1999","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"836","DOI":"10.1086\/381979","article-title":"Differences in Potency of Intravenous Polyspecific Immunoglobulin G Against Streptococcal and Staphylococcal Superantigens: Implications for Therapy of Toxic Shock Syndrome","volume":"38","author":"Darenberg","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.73.1.174-180.2005","article-title":"A Mutant of Staphylococcal Enterotoxin C Devoid of Bacterial Superantigenic Activity Elicits a Th2 Immune Response for Protection Against Staphylococcus aureus Infection","volume":"73","author":"Hu","year":"2005","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1038\/74672","article-title":"Superantigen Antagonist Protects Against Lethal Shock and Defines a New Domain for T-Cell Activation","volume":"6","author":"Arad","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4222","DOI":"10.1021\/bi002172e","article-title":"Structure-Based Design of a Bispecific Receptor Mimic That Inhibits T Cell Responses to a Superantigen","volume":"40","author":"Lehnert","year":"2001","journal-title":"Biochemistry"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1086\/589776","article-title":"Neutralization of Multiple Staphylococcal Superantigens by a Single-Chain Protein Consisting of Affinity-Matured, Variable Domain Repeats","volume":"198","author":"Yang","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.1038\/nm1584","article-title":"Neutralization of Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B by Soluble, High-Affinity Receptor Antagonists","volume":"13","author":"Buonpane","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"796","DOI":"10.1038\/mt.2009.18","article-title":"Suppression of Acute Lung Inflammation by Intracellular Peptide Delivery of a Nuclear Import Inhibitor","volume":"17","author":"Liu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1125","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.01015-09","article-title":"Rapamycin Protects Mice From Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B-Induced Toxic Shock and Blocks Cytokine Release in vivo and in Vivo","volume":"54","author":"Krakauer","year":"2010","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1143","DOI":"10.1038\/mt.2010.53","article-title":"Detrimental Effect of the Proteasome Inhibitor, Bortezomib in Bacterial Superantigen- and Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Systemic Inflammation","volume":"18","author":"Tilahun","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.175.1.91","article-title":"T Cell-Mediated Lethal Shock Triggered in Mice by the Superantigen Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B: Critical Role of Tumor Necrosis Factor","volume":"175","author":"Miethke","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1521","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.67.3.1521-1525.1999","article-title":"Correlation of Temperature and Toxicity in Murine Studies of Staphylococcal Enterotoxins and Toxic Shock Syndrome Toxin 1","volume":"67","author":"Stiles","year":"1999","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2249.2009.03963.x","article-title":"Attenuation of Massive Cytokine Response to the Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B Superantigen by the Innate Immunomodulatory Protein Lactoferrin","volume":"157","author":"Hayworth","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.109.112466","article-title":"Dietary Plasma Protein Supplements Prevent the Release of Mucosal Proinflammatory Mediators in Intestinal Inflammation in Rats","volume":"140","author":"Miro","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Nutr."}],"container-title":["Toxins"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6651\/2\/8\/2177\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T22:03:10Z","timestamp":1760220190000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6651\/2\/8\/2177"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2010,8,18]]},"references-count":132,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2010,8]]}},"alternative-id":["toxins2082177"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/toxins2082177","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6651"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6651","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2010,8,18]]}}}