{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,24]],"date-time":"2026-07-24T18:37:57Z","timestamp":1784918277067,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":166,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2013,9,24]],"date-time":"2013-09-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1379980800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxins"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Staphylococcal enterotoxin B (SEB) and related bacterial toxins cause diseases in humans and laboratory animals ranging from food poisoning, acute lung injury to toxic shock. These superantigens bind directly to the major histocompatibility complex class II molecules on antigen-presenting cells and specific V\u03b2 regions of T-cell receptors (TCR), resulting in rapid hyper-activation of the host immune system. In addition to TCR and co-stimulatory signals, proinflammatory mediators activate signaling pathways culminating in cell-stress response, activation of NF\u03baB and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR). This article presents a concise review of superantigen-activated signaling pathways and focuses on the therapeutic challenges against bacterial superantigens.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins5091629","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,9,24]],"date-time":"2013-09-24T13:38:52Z","timestamp":1380029932000},"page":"1629-1654","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":52,"title":["Update on Staphylococcal Superantigen-Induced Signaling Pathways and Therapeutic Interventions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"5","author":[{"given":"Teresa","family":"Krakauer","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology, Integrated Toxicology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD 21702 5011, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,9,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e22997","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0022997","article-title":"Staphylococcal toxic shock syndrome 2000\u20132006: Epidemiology, clinical features, and molecular characteristics","volume":"6","author":"DeVries","year":"2011","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4649","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1742-4658.2011.08151.x","article-title":"Gram-positive bacterial superantigen outside-in signaling causes toxic shock syndrome","volume":"278","author":"Brosnahan","year":"2011","journal-title":"FEBS J."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1615\/CritRevImmunol.v30.i2.40","article-title":"Staphylococcal superantigen super-domains in immune evasion","volume":"30","author":"Langley","year":"2010","journal-title":"Crit. 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