{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T03:16:42Z","timestamp":1790824602091,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":82,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2013,10,7]],"date-time":"2013-10-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1381104000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxins"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The filamentous fungus Aspergillus clavatus is known to produce a variety of secondary metabolites (SM) such as patulin, pseurotin A, and cytochalasin E. In fungi, the production of most SM is strongly influenced by environmental factors and nutrients. Furthermore, it has been shown that the regulation of SM gene clusters is largely based  on modulation of a chromatin structure. Communication between fungi and bacteria  also triggers chromatin-based induction of silent SM gene clusters. Consequently,  chemical chromatin effectors known to inhibit histone deacetylases (HDACs) and  DNA-methyltransferases (DNMTs) influence the SM profile of several fungi. In this study, we tested the effect of five different chemicals, which are known to affect chromatin structure, on SM production in A. clavatus using two growth media with a different organic nitrogen source. We found that production of patulin was completely inhibited and cytochalasin E levels strongly reduced, whereas growing A. clavatus in media containing soya-derived peptone led to substantially higher pseurotin A levels. The HDAC inhibitors valproic acid, trichostatin A and butyrate, as well as the DNMT inhibitor 5-azacytidine (AZA) and N-acetyl-D-glucosamine, which was used as a proxy for bacterial fungal  co-cultivation, had profound influence on SM accumulation and transcription of the corresponding biosynthetic genes. However, the repressing effect of the soya-based nitrogen source on patulin production could not be bypassed by any of the small chemical chromatin effectors. Interestingly, AZA influenced some SM cluster genes and SM production although no Aspergillus species has yet been shown to carry detectable  DNA methylation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins5101723","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,10,7]],"date-time":"2013-10-07T12:20:34Z","timestamp":1381148434000},"page":"1723-1741","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":56,"title":["Small Chemical Chromatin Effectors Alter Secondary Metabolite Production in Aspergillus clavatus"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"5","author":[{"given":"Christoph","family":"Zutz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Milk Hygiene, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinaerplatz1,  Vienna 1210, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Agnieszka","family":"Gacek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fungal Genetics and Genomics Unit, Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology,  University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Konrad Lorenz-Stra\u00dfe 24\/II, Tulln\/Donau 3430, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3302-0732","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael","family":"Sulyok","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department for Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln),  University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Konrad-Lorenz-Stra\u00dfe 20, Tulln\/Donau 3430, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Martin","family":"Wagner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Milk Hygiene, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinaerplatz1,  Vienna 1210, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joseph","family":"Strauss","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fungal Genetics and Genomics Unit, Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology,  University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Konrad Lorenz-Stra\u00dfe 24\/II, Tulln\/Donau 3430, Austria"},{"name":"AIT-Austrian Institute of Technology GmbH, Health and Environment Department,  University and Research Campus Tulln, Konrad Lorenz-Stra\u00dfe 24\/II, Tulln\/Donau 3430, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kathrin","family":"Rychli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Milk Hygiene, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinaerplatz1,  Vienna 1210, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,10,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.3114\/sim.2007.59.11","article-title":"Taxonomic revision of Aspergillus section Clavati based on molecular, morphological and physiological data","volume":"59","author":"Varga","year":"2007","journal-title":"Stud. 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