{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,9]],"date-time":"2026-10-09T19:59:39Z","timestamp":1791575979684,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":114,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2015,2,25]],"date-time":"2015-02-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1424822400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000923","name":"Australian Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["DP1095728"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DP1095728"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000923","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"National Health &amp; Medical Research Council","award":["Principal Research Fellowship APP1044414"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Principal Research Fellowship APP1044414"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxins"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Centipedes are among the oldest extant venomous predators on the planet. Armed with a pair of modified, venom-bearing limbs, they are an important group of predatory arthropods and are infamous for their ability to deliver painful stings. Despite this, very little is known about centipede venom and its composition. Advances in analytical tools, however, have recently provided the first detailed insights into the composition and evolution of centipede venoms. This has revealed that centipede venom proteins are highly diverse, with 61 phylogenetically distinct venom protein and peptide families. A number of these have been convergently recruited into the venoms of other animals, providing valuable information on potential underlying causes of the occasionally serious complications arising from human centipede envenomations. However, the majority of venom protein and peptide families bear no resemblance to any characterised protein or peptide family, highlighting the novelty of centipede venoms. This review highlights recent discoveries and summarises the current state of knowledge on the fascinating venom system of centipedes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins7030679","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,2,25]],"date-time":"2015-02-25T05:28:04Z","timestamp":1424842084000},"page":"679-704","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":97,"title":["Centipede Venom: Recent Discoveries and Current State  of Knowledge"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"7","author":[{"given":"Eivind","family":"Undheim","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Molecular Bioscience, the University of Queensland, St Lucia,  Queensland 4072, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6661-1283","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bryan","family":"Fry","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biological Sciences, the University of Queensland, St Lucia,  Queensland 4072, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Glenn","family":"King","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Molecular Bioscience, the University of Queensland, St Lucia,  Queensland 4072, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,2,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.3897\/zookeys.69.737","article-title":"A common terminology for the external anatomy of centipedes (Chilopoda)","volume":"69","author":"Bonato","year":"2010","journal-title":"ZooKeys"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2011.01.004","article-title":"On the venom system of centipedes (Chilopoda), a neglected group of venomous animals","volume":"57","author":"Undheim","year":"2011","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1500","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/msu108","article-title":"Evaluating topological conflict in centipede phylogeny using transcriptomic data sets","volume":"31","author":"Laumer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"1","article-title":"Centipede legs (Arthropoda, Chilopoda, Scutigeromorpha) from the Silurian and Devonian of Britain and the Devonian of North America","volume":"3231","author":"Shear","year":"1998","journal-title":"Am. Mus. Novit."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1111\/1475-4983.00308","article-title":"An Early Devonian arthropod fauna from the Windyfield cherts, Aberdeenshire, Scotland","volume":"46","author":"Anderson","year":"2003","journal-title":"Palaeontology"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asd.2010.01.003","article-title":"Geological history and phylogeny of Chelicerata","volume":"39","author":"Dunlop","year":"2010","journal-title":"Arthropod Struct. Dev."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20781","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0809174106","article-title":"Fossil evidence for the origin of spider spinnerets, and a proposed arachnid order","volume":"105","author":"Selden","year":"2008","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2014.02.003","article-title":"Variation in venom yield and protein concentration of the centipedes Scolopendra polymorpha and Scolopendra subspinipes","volume":"82","author":"Cooper","year":"2014","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3488","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins6123488","article-title":"Quo vadis venomics? A roadmap to neglected venomous invertebrates","volume":"6","author":"Campbell","year":"2014","journal-title":"Toxins (Basel)"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1002\/jmor.1052060307","article-title":"Venom apparatus and toxicity of the centipede Ethmostigmus rubripes (Chilopoda, Scolopendridae)","volume":"206","author":"Zimmerman","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Morphol."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"155","article-title":"Structure and distribution of sensilla coeloconica on the maxillipedes of Chilopoda","volume":"44","author":"Ernst","year":"2003","journal-title":"Afr. Invertebr."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asd.2013.10.006","article-title":"The evolution of centipede venom claws\u2014Open questions and possible answers","volume":"43","author":"Haug","year":"2014","journal-title":"Arthropod Struct. Dev."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2008.12.010","article-title":"Comparative morphological study of the venom glands of the centipede Cryptops iheringi, Otostigmus pradoi and Scolopendra viridicornis","volume":"53","author":"Antoniazzi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"481","article-title":"Recherches sur les chilopodes","volume":"6","author":"Duboscq","year":"1898","journal-title":"Arch. Zool. Exp. G\u00e9n."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1080\/00222930110098508","article-title":"The scolopendromorph centipedes of Mauritius and Rodrigues and their adjacent islets (Chilopoda: Scolopendromorpha)","volume":"36","author":"Lewis","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Nat. Hist."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"872","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1096-0031.2008.00220.x","article-title":"Phylogeny of scolopendromorph centipedes (Chilopoda): Morphological analysis featuring characters from the peristomatic area","volume":"24","author":"Edgecombe","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cladistics"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1080\/01650520600915613","article-title":"Geophilomorph centipedes (Chilopoda) from termite mounds in the northern Pantanal wetland of Mato Grosso, Brazil","volume":"42","author":"Pereira","year":"2007","journal-title":"Stud. Neotrop. Fauna Environ."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1111\/ede.12004","article-title":"Development of the venom ducts in the centipede Scolopendra: An example of recapitulation","volume":"14","author":"Dugon","year":"2012","journal-title":"Evol. Dev."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"119","article-title":"Fine structural organization of the poison gland of Lithobius forficatus (Chilopoda, Lithobiomorpha)","volume":"53","author":"Rosenberg","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nor. J. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1525-142X.2011.00527.x","article-title":"Comparative studies on the structure and development of the venom-delivery system of centipedes, and a hypothesis on the origin of this evolutionary novelty","volume":"14","author":"Dugon","year":"2012","journal-title":"Evol. Dev."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1016\/0041-0101(83)90093-4","article-title":"Proteins, lipids, lipoproteins and some enzyme characterizations of the venom extract from the centipede Scolopendra morsitans","volume":"21","author":"Mohamed","year":"1983","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/0041-0101(63)90002-3","article-title":"5-Hydroxytryptamine content of some arthropod venoms and venom-containing parts","volume":"1","author":"Welsh","year":"1963","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"203","article-title":"Isolation, purification and pharmacodynamics of a toxin from the venom of the centipede Scolopendra subspinipes dehaani Brandt","volume":"21","author":"Gomes","year":"1983","journal-title":"Indian J. Exp. Biol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1431","DOI":"10.1016\/S0041-0101(99)00089-6","article-title":"Effects of a centipede venom fraction on insect nervous system, a native Xenopus oocyte receptor and on an expressed Drosophila muscarinic receptor","volume":"37","author":"Stankiewicz","year":"1999","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"810","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2006.12.001","article-title":"Venomic analyses of Scolopendra viridicornis nigra and Scolopendra angulata (Centipede, Scolopendromorpha): Shedding light on venoms from a neglected group","volume":"49","author":"Rates","year":"2007","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6197","DOI":"10.1021\/pr300881d","article-title":"Venomic and transcriptomic analysis of centipede Scolopendra subspinipes dehaani","volume":"11","author":"Liu","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Proteome Res."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2008.05.012","article-title":"Toxic activities of Brazilian centipede venoms","volume":"52","author":"Malta","year":"2008","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2009.03.003","article-title":"Venom from the centipede Scolopendra viridis Say: Purification, gene cloning and phylogenetic analysis of a phospholipase A2","volume":"54","author":"Segovia","year":"2009","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2124","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/msu162","article-title":"Clawing through evolution: Toxin diversification and convergence in the ancient lineage Chilopoda (Centipedes)","volume":"31","author":"Undheim","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.en.40.010195.000505","article-title":"Extra-oral digestion in predaceous terrestrial Arthropoda","volume":"40","author":"Cohen","year":"1995","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jprot.2014.04.033","article-title":"Proteomic characterization of the venom and transcriptomic analysis of the venomous gland from the Mexican centipede Scolopendra viridis","volume":"111","author":"Batista","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Proteomics"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jprot.2014.10.014","article-title":"Peptidomics combined with cDNA library unravel the diversity of centipede venom","volume":"114","author":"Rong","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Proteomics"},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Barrett, A.J., Rawlings, N.D., and Woessner, J.F. (2004). Handbook of Proteolytic Enzymes, Elsevier. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"651","DOI":"10.1074\/mcp.M112.023135","article-title":"Differential evolution and neofunctionalization of snake venom metalloprotease domains","volume":"12","author":"Brust","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Proteomics"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1042\/BJ20070363","article-title":"Identification, cloning, expression and functional characterization of an astacin-like metalloprotease toxin from Loxosceles intermedia (brown spider) venom","volume":"406","author":"Wille","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biochem. J."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2583.2009.00914.x","article-title":"Insights into the venom composition of the ectoparasitoid wasp Nasonia vitripennis from bioinformatic and proteomic studies","volume":"19","author":"Aerts","year":"2010","journal-title":"Insect Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"869","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-291X(03)00857-X","article-title":"Cloning of a salivary gland metalloprotease and characterization of gelatinase and fibrin(ogen)lytic activities in the saliva of the Lyme disease tick vector Ixodes scapularis","volume":"305","author":"Francischetti","year":"2003","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1007\/s00239-013-9552-5","article-title":"Molecular phylogeny and evolution of the proteins encoded by coleoid (Cuttlefish, Octopus, and Squid) posterior venom glands","volume":"76","author":"Ruder","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Mol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2013.05.002","article-title":"Proteomic characterisation of toxins isolated from nematocysts of the South Atlantic jellyfish Olindias sambaquiensis","volume":"71","author":"Weston","year":"2013","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/msr180","article-title":"A limited role for gene duplications in the evolution of platypus venom","volume":"29","author":"Wong","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1007\/s10126-012-9491-y","article-title":"Analysis of soluble protein contents from the nematocysts of a model sea anemone sheds light on venom evolution","volume":"15","author":"Moran","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mar. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1247","DOI":"10.1002\/pro.5560040701","article-title":"The astacin family of metalloendopeptidases","volume":"4","author":"Bond","year":"1995","journal-title":"Protein Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-ento-120811-153650","article-title":"Spider-venom peptides: Structure, pharmacology, and potential for control of insect pests","volume":"58","author":"King","year":"2013","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"570","DOI":"10.1134\/S0026893312030132","article-title":"Molecular cloning and characterization of a new cDNA sequence encoding a venom peptide from the centipede Scolopendra subspinipes mutilans","volume":"46","author":"Liu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. (Mosk.)"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.genom.9.081307.164356","article-title":"The toxicogenomic multiverse: Convergent recruitment of proteins into animal venoms","volume":"10","author":"Fry","year":"2009","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Genom. Human Genet."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jprot.2013.05.034","article-title":"Dracula\u2019s children: The proteomics, transcriptomics and molecular evolution of vampire bat venom proteins","volume":"89","author":"Low","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Proteomics"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1563","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jprot.2011.11.029","article-title":"Extreme diversity of scorpion venom peptides and proteins revealed by transcriptomic analysis: Implication for proteome evolution of scorpion venom arsenal","volume":"75","author":"Ma","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Proteomics"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.2174\/1875414701003020053","article-title":"The aerolysin-like toxin family of cytolytic, pore-forming toxins","volume":"3","author":"Knapp","year":"2010","journal-title":"Open Toxinol. J."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.1002\/pro.5560060301","article-title":"Subtilases: The superfamily of subtilisin-like serine proteases","volume":"6","author":"Siezen","year":"1997","journal-title":"Protein Sci."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jprot.2014.02.024","article-title":"Multifunctional warheads: Diversification of the toxin arsenal of centipedes via novel multidomain transcripts","volume":"102","author":"Undheim","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Proteomics"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2527","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-2952(92)90140-E","article-title":"y-glutamyltransferase: Nucleotide sequence of the human pancreatic cDNA. Evidence for a ubiquitous y-glutamyltransferase polypeptide in human tissues","volume":"43","author":"Courtay","year":"1992","journal-title":"Biochem. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ibmb.2007.02.005","article-title":"A \u03b3-glutamyl transpeptidase of Aphidius ervi venom induces apoptosis in the ovaries of host aphids","volume":"37","author":"Falabella","year":"2007","journal-title":"Insect Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ympev.2011.04.024","article-title":"Cretaceous\u2013Tertiary diversification among select scolopendrid centipedes of South India","volume":"60","author":"Joshi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mol. Phylogenet. Evol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9672","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M111.328203","article-title":"Proteome of Hydra nematocyst","volume":"287","author":"Balasubramanian","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dci.2011.01.010","article-title":"Identification and functional characterization of Dicer2 and five single VWC domain proteins of Litopenaeus vannamei","volume":"35","author":"Chen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Dev. Comp. immunol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2164-9-279","article-title":"Transcriptome analysis of Loxosceles laeta (Araneae, Sicariidae) spider venomous gland using expressed sequence tags","volume":"9","author":"Kobashi","year":"2008","journal-title":"BMC Genomics"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"887","DOI":"10.1016\/S0965-1748(97)00078-7","article-title":"Insect chitinases: Molecular biology and potential use as biopesticides","volume":"27","author":"Kramer","year":"1998","journal-title":"Insect Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6227","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.85.17.6227","article-title":"Cloning the human lysozyme cDNA: Inverted Alu repeat in the mRNA and in situ hybridization for macrophages and Paneth cells","volume":"85","author":"Chung","year":"1988","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biochi.2004.02.004","article-title":"Isolation and characterization of hyaluronidase a \u201cspreading factor\u201d from Indian cobra (Naja naja) venom","volume":"86","author":"Girish","year":"2004","journal-title":"Biochimie"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2004.02.009","article-title":"Biochemistry, toxicology and ecology of the venom of the spider Cupiennius salei (Ctenidae)","volume":"43","author":"Schaller","year":"2004","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/0041-0101(94)90105-8","article-title":"Characteristics of hyaluronidase and hemolytic activity in fishing tentacle nematocyst venom of Chrysaora quinquecirrha","volume":"32","author":"Burnett","year":"1994","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1354","DOI":"10.1074\/mcp.M112.017491","article-title":"Proteomics and deep sequencing comparison of seasonally active venom glands in the platypus reveals novel venom peptides and distinct expression profiles","volume":"11","author":"Wong","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Proteomics"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.3390\/md10020258","article-title":"Recruitment of glycosyl hydrolase proteins in a cone snail venomous arsenal: Further insights into biomolecular features of Conus venoms","volume":"10","author":"Violette","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mar. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3518","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.270.8.3518","article-title":"Conodipine-M, a novel phospholipase A2 isolated from the venom of the marine snail Conus magus","volume":"270","author":"McIntosh","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1101\/gr.3228405","article-title":"From genome to \u201cvenome\u201d: Molecular origin and evolution of the snake venom proteome inferred from phylogenetic analysis of toxin sequences and related body proteins","volume":"15","author":"Fry","year":"2005","journal-title":"Genome Res."},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"205","article-title":"A toxic fraction from scolopendra venom increases the basal release of neurotransmitters in the ventral ganglia of crustaceans","volume":"135","author":"Abarca","year":"2003","journal-title":"Comp. Biochem. Physiol. C"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1016\/0005-2744(67)90032-0","article-title":"Studies on glucose dehydrogenase of Aspergillus oryzae. II. Purification and physical and chemical properties","volume":"139","author":"Bak","year":"1967","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophysi. Acta"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1016\/S0968-0004(01)01906-5","article-title":"A novel superfamily of enzymes that catalyze the modification of guanidino groups","volume":"26","author":"Shirai","year":"2001","journal-title":"Trends Biochem. Sci."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1016\/0041-0101(74)90243-8","article-title":"Characteristics of an alkaline phosphatase activity in brown recluse venom","volume":"12","author":"Heitz","year":"1974","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"854","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2006.02.010","article-title":"Acid and alkaline phosphatase activities of a fraction isolated from Parawixia bistriata spider venom","volume":"47","author":"Rodrigues","year":"2006","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2477","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(19)67997-4","article-title":"A specific and nonspecific alkaline monophosphatase in the venom of Bothrops atrox and their occurrence in the purified venom phosphodiesterase","volume":"238","author":"Sulkowski","year":"1963","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-406X(66)90029-6","article-title":"Acid and alkaline phosphomonoesterase activities in snake venoms","volume":"17","author":"Tu","year":"1966","journal-title":"Comp. Biochem. Physiol. C: Toxicol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"897","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2010.06.013","article-title":"Venom on ice: First insights into Antarctic octopus venoms","volume":"56","author":"Undheim","year":"2010","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1016\/S0041-0101(01)00232-X","article-title":"Ophidian envenomation strategies and the role of purines","volume":"40","author":"Aird","year":"2002","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1002\/cbf.1637","article-title":"The pharmacological role of nucleotidases in snake venoms","volume":"28","author":"Dhananjaya","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cell Biochem. Funct."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1093\/jee\/85.1.33","article-title":"Insecticidal activity of spider (Araneae), centipede (Chilopoda), scorpion (Scorpionidae), and snake (Serpentes) venoms","volume":"85","author":"Quistad","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Econ. Entom."},{"key":"ref_77","first-page":"79","article-title":"Purification and characterization of a cysteine-rich secretory protein from Philodryas patagoniensis snake venom","volume":"150","author":"Peichoto","year":"2009","journal-title":"Comp. Biochem. Physiol. C"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1385\/CRIAI:30:2:109","article-title":"Hymenoptera venom allergens","volume":"30","author":"Hoffman","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Rev. Allergy Immunol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6334","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.92.14.6334","article-title":"Three-dimensional structure of a cysteine-rich repeat from the low-density lipoprotein receptor","volume":"92","author":"Daly","year":"1995","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1007\/s00251-007-0258-y","article-title":"Immune-related genes associated with intestinal tissue in the sea cucumber Holothuria glaberrima","volume":"60","year":"2008","journal-title":"Immunogenetics"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1881","DOI":"10.1074\/mcp.M112.023143","article-title":"Squeezers and leaf-cutters: Differential diversification and degeneration of the venom system in toxicoferan reptiles","volume":"12","author":"Fry","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Proteomics"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1042\/bss0700179","article-title":"Cystatins","volume":"70","author":"Abrahamson","year":"2003","journal-title":"Biochem. Soc. Symposia"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2008.05.020","article-title":"A rational nomenclature for naming peptide toxins from spiders and other venomous animals","volume":"52","author":"King","year":"2008","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3067","DOI":"10.1007\/s00018-005-5283-0","article-title":"Conotoxins and the posttranslational modification of secreted gene products","volume":"62","author":"Buczek","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2011.09.015","article-title":"Scorpion and spider venom peptides: Gene cloning and peptide expression","volume":"58","author":"Ortiz","year":"2011","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2456","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins5122456","article-title":"Evolution stings: The origin and diversification of scorpion toxin peptide scaffolds","volume":"5","author":"Sunagar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Toxins"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jprot.2013.01.002","article-title":"Unravelling the complex venom landscapes of lethal Australian funnel-web spiders (Hexathelidae: Atracinae) using LC-MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry","volume":"80","author":"Palagi","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Proteomics"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2009.07.040","article-title":"Two novel antimicrobial peptides from centipede venoms","volume":"55","author":"Peng","year":"2009","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"640","DOI":"10.1074\/mcp.M112.018853","article-title":"Chemical punch packed in venoms makes centipedes excellent predators","volume":"11","author":"Yang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Proteomics"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17534","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1306285110","article-title":"Discovery of a selective NaV1.7 inhibitor from centipede venom with analgesic efficacy exceeding morphine in rodent pain models","volume":"110","author":"Yang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_91","first-page":"88","article-title":"Induction, purification and characterization of an antibacterial peptide scolopendrin I from the venom of centipede Scolopendra subspinipes mutilans","volume":"43","author":"Wenhua","year":"2006","journal-title":"Indian J. Biochem. Biophys."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2238","DOI":"10.5897\/AJPP2013.3765","article-title":"Cytotoxic and anticoagulant peptide from Scolopendra subspinipes mutilans venom","volume":"7","author":"Kong","year":"2013","journal-title":"Afr. J. Pharm. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2651","DOI":"10.1007\/s00018-003-3106-8","article-title":"Antimicrobial and cytolytic peptides of venomous arthropods","volume":"60","year":"2003","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"514","DOI":"10.1590\/S0034-89101998000600003","article-title":"Epidemiological aspects of centipede (Scolopendromorphae: Chilopoda) bites registered in Greater S. Paulo, SP, Brazil","volume":"32","author":"Knysak","year":"1998","journal-title":"Rev. Sa\u00fade P\u00fablica"},{"key":"ref_95","first-page":"41","article-title":"Prospective study of centipede bites in Australia","volume":"42","author":"Balit","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clin. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_96","first-page":"300","article-title":"Features of centipede bites in Taiwan","volume":"47","author":"Lin","year":"1995","journal-title":"Trop. Geogr. Med."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wem.2012.02.012","article-title":"Fatalities from venomous and nonvenomous animals in the United States (1999\u20132007)","volume":"23","author":"Forrester","year":"2012","journal-title":"Wilderness Environ. Med."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1580\/1080-6032(2005)16[67:AFITUS]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Animal-related fatalities in the United States\u2014An update","volume":"16","author":"Langley","year":"2005","journal-title":"Wilderness Environ. Med."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"849","DOI":"10.1520\/JFS14565J","article-title":"Centipede inflicted postmortem injury","volume":"44","author":"Harada","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Forensic Sci."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"869","DOI":"10.1111\/ijd.12434","article-title":"Scolopendra bites: A report of two cases and review of the literature","volume":"53","author":"Veraldi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1619","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.2.4956.1619-a","article-title":"Treatment of centipede bites","volume":"2","author":"Blay","year":"1955","journal-title":"Br. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"825","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.2.5048.825-b","article-title":"Centipede Bites","volume":"2","author":"Marsh","year":"1957","journal-title":"Br. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1016\/j.main.2009.05.001","article-title":"Dermohypodermite bact\u00e9rienne et phlegmon du membre sup\u00e9rieur par morsure de scolopendre: \u00c0 propos de deux cas","volume":"28","author":"Uzel","year":"2009","journal-title":"Chir. Main"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"807","DOI":"10.1001\/archdermatol.2010.157","article-title":"Centipede bite: A case report","volume":"146","author":"Veraldi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Arch. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_105","first-page":"1","article-title":"A case of mortal necrotizing fasciitis of the trunk resulting from a centipede (Scolopendra moritans) bitesite","volume":"2","author":"Serinken","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_106","first-page":"59","article-title":"A fatal case of centipede bite","volume":"3","author":"Pineda","year":"1923","journal-title":"J. Philippine Is. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1950.s1-30.453","article-title":"The bite and habits of a giant centipede (Scolopendra subspinipes) in the Philippine Islands","volume":"1","author":"Remington","year":"1950","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1163\/187525410X12578602960425","article-title":"Field observations on three scolopendrid centipedes from Mauritius and Rodrigues (Indian Ocean) (Chilopoda: Scolopendromorpha)","volume":"3","author":"Lewis","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Myriapodol."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2014.00077","article-title":"Hymenoptera allergens: From venom to \u201cvenome\u201d","volume":"5","author":"Spillner","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_110","first-page":"1279","article-title":"Three cases of centipede allergy: Analysis of cross reactivity with bee allergy","volume":"54","author":"Harada","year":"2005","journal-title":"Arerugi"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1580\/1080-6032(2001)012[0093:CE]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Centipede envenomation","volume":"12","author":"Bush","year":"2001","journal-title":"Wilderness Environ. Med."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"659","DOI":"10.1080\/15563650802084821","article-title":"Comparisons of ice packs, hot water immersion, and analgesia injection for the treatment of centipede envenomations in Taiwan","volume":"47","author":"Chaou","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_113","first-page":"381","article-title":"Centipede bite victims: A review of patients presenting to two emergency departments in Hong Kong","volume":"17","author":"Fung","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hong Kong Med. J."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1002005","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.1002005","article-title":"The first myriapod genome sequence reveals conservative arthropod gene content and genome organisation in the centipede Strigamia maritima","volume":"12","author":"Chipman","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS Biol."}],"container-title":["Toxins"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6651\/7\/3\/679\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T20:42:55Z","timestamp":1760215375000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6651\/7\/3\/679"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,2,25]]},"references-count":114,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,3]]}},"alternative-id":["toxins7030679"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/toxins7030679","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6651"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6651","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2015,2,25]]}}}