{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T01:46:21Z","timestamp":1788486381052,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,8]],"date-time":"2025-09-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1757289600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Universidad de Las Am\u00e9ricas","award":["MED.MGB.23.13.01"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MED.MGB.23.13.01"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["TropicalMed"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Guinea pigs (Cavia porcellus) are bred as livestock in South American countries from the Andean region, including Ecuador. Despite their importance for the local rural economy, no public health management guidelines have ever been implemented for guinea pig farming. Moreover, several reports have shown the carriage of diverse zoonotic pathogens in livestock guinea pigs, including respiratory and enteric pathogens, or Toxoplasma gondii. Leptospirosis, a zoonotic disease caused by bacteria from Leptospira genus, is endemic in Ecuador and has multiple animal reservoirs, with rodents considered to be the main vector for transmission to humans. However, the role of livestock guinea pigs in the epidemiology of leptospirosis is poorly understood. In this study, the prevalence of antibodies against Leptospira in guinea pigs from Ecuador was analyzed with the Microaglutiantion Test (MAT). Moreover, the shedding of Leptospira by backyard livestock guinea pigs was also addressed, analyzing fecal and urine samples by qPCR for lipL32, secY and rrs genes. From the 118 guinea pigs analyzed by MAT, 61.9% were positive for 19 different pathogenic serovars, with Icterohaemorrhagiae, Pomona, Castellonis and Bataviae being the most prevalent ones. From the 231 urine samples and 225 fecal samples collected, 27.7% and 78.7% were positive for Leptospira by qPCR, respectively. Our results highlight the role of livestock guinea pigs as a reservoir for leptospirosis. Moreover, this study underscores the zoonotic threat associated with the shedding of Leptospira within households in rural communities where guinea pigs are bred as livestock. Animal and public health guidelines from a One Health perspective must be implemented to prevent leptospirosis transmission from guinea pigs in Ecuador and other countries in the Andean Region where the breeding of backyard livestock guinea pigs is common.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed10090256","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,9]],"date-time":"2025-09-09T08:40:15Z","timestamp":1757407215000},"page":"256","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Backyard Livestock Guinea Pigs Are Reservoirs for Leptospira Shedding in Rural Households from Ecuador"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Mauricio Xavier","family":"Salas-Rueda","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"GLOBALGEN, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica Salesiana, Calle Vieja 12-30 y Elia Liut, Cuenca 010105, Ecuador"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fabricio","family":"Dugllay-Montaleza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"GLOBALGEN, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica Salesiana, Calle Vieja 12-30 y Elia Liut, Cuenca 010105, Ecuador"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Darwin","family":"Paredes-N\u00fa\u00f1ez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"One Health Research Group, Universidad de Las Am\u00e9ricas, Quito 170516, Ecuador"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Katherine Natalia","family":"Ch\u00e1vez Toledo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Universidad Cat\u00f3lica Santiago de Guayaquil, Guayaquil 090504, Ecuador"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Angel Sebasti\u00e1n","family":"Rodr\u00edguez-Pazmi\u00f1o","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"One Health Research Group, Universidad de Las Am\u00e9ricas, Quito 170516, Ecuador"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elsy","family":"Carvajal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"One Health Research Group, Universidad de Las Am\u00e9ricas, Quito 170516, Ecuador"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maria Belen","family":"Paredes-Espinosa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"One Health Research Group, Universidad de Las Am\u00e9ricas, Quito 170516, Ecuador"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Patricia","family":"Peralta-Ortiz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"GLOBALGEN, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica Salesiana, Calle Vieja 12-30 y Elia Liut, Cuenca 010105, Ecuador"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jairo","family":"Guama-Tipas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"GLOBALGEN, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica Salesiana, Calle Vieja 12-30 y Elia Liut, Cuenca 010105, Ecuador"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Juan Pablo","family":"Garzon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agropecuarias (INIAP), Estaci\u00f3n Experimental del Austro, Gualaceo 010350, Ecuador"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alexandra","family":"Narvaez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Universidad Esp\u00edritu Santo, Guayaquil 092301, Ecuador"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Solon Alberto","family":"Orlando","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto Nacional de Salud P\u00fablica e Investigaci\u00f3n, Guayaquil 090514, Ecuador"},{"name":"Universidad Ecotec, Guayaquil 092302, Ecuador"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0025-3609","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Miguel Angel","family":"Garcia-Bereguiain","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"One Health Research Group, Universidad de Las Am\u00e9ricas, Quito 170516, Ecuador"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"(2014). The all-purpose guinea pig. Lab. Anim., 43, 79.","DOI":"10.1038\/laban.486"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"437","article-title":"Notes on the origin of the domestic guinea-pig","volume":"34","author":"Weir","year":"1975","journal-title":"Symp. Zool. Soc."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.19053\/01228420.v14.n1.2017.6086","article-title":"Caracterizaci\u00f3n de la carne de cuy (Cavia porcellus) para utilizarla en la elaboraci\u00f3n de un embutido fermentado","volume":"14","author":"Duarte","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cienc. Y Agric."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"(2025, June 04). El Tel\u00e9grafo\u2014M\u00e1s de 710 Mil Familias se Dedican a la Crianza de Cuyes en el Pa\u00eds. Available online: https:\/\/www.eltelegrafo.com.ec\/noticias\/2015\/1\/mas-de-710-mil-familias-se-dedican-a-la-crianza-de-cuyes-en-el-pais."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"(2025, June 04). Crianza de Cuyes Ayuda a Reconversi\u00f3n de Actividades Productivas\u2014Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganader\u00eda. Available online: https:\/\/www.agricultura.gob.ec\/crianza-de-cuyes-ayuda-a-reconversion-de-actividades-productivas."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Salas Rueda, M., Rodr\u00edguez-Pazmi\u00f1o, A.S., Calder\u00f3n, J., Echevarr\u00eda, J., Orlando, S.A., and Garcia Bereguiain, M.A. (2025). Livestock guinea pigs: A comprehensive review from a One Health perspective. Trop. Anim. Health Prod., in press."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Buela, L., Cuenca, M., Sarmiento, J., Pel\u00e1ez, D., Mendoza, A.Y., Cabrera, E.J., and Yarz\u00e1bal, L.A. (2022). Role of Guinea Pigs (Cavia porcellus) Raised as Livestock in Ecuadorian Andes as Reservoirs of Zoonotic Yeasts. Animals, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani12243449"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1135","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1807.111930","article-title":"Influenza Virus Infection in Guinea Pigs Raised as Livestock, Ecuador","volume":"18","author":"Mubareka","year":"2012","journal-title":"Emer. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107505","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2024.107505","article-title":"Respiratory Pathogens Carriage in Guinea Pigs Raised as Livestock in Ecuador: A Proxy to Study a Neglected Reservoir for Zoonotic Transmission in the Andean Region","volume":"261","author":"Cardenas","year":"2025","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100118","DOI":"10.1016\/j.onehlt.2019.100118","article-title":"Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus Carriage among Guinea Pigs Raised as Livestock in Ecuador","volume":"9","author":"Rodriguez","year":"2020","journal-title":"One Health"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.1111\/1758-2229.12396","article-title":"Hyperendemic Campylobacter jejuni in guinea pigs (Cavia porcellus) raised for food in a semi-rural community of Quito, Ecuador","volume":"8","author":"Graham","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Microbiol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"100630","article-title":"Ocurrence of enteroparasites with zoonotic potential in animals of the rural area of San Andres, Chimborazo, Ecuador","volume":"26","author":"Chimbaina","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol: Reg. Stud. Rep."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"101038","article-title":"Molecular detection of Toxoplasma gondii in domestic and wild guinea pigs (Cavia spp.) from the Marangani district in Cuzco, Peru","volume":"52","author":"Roller","year":"2024","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol. Reg. Stud. Rep."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"100801","article-title":"First serological and molecular detection of Toxoplasma gondii in guinea pigs (Cavia porcellus) used for human consumption in Nari\u00f1o, Colombia, South America","volume":"36","author":"Kwok","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol. Reg. Stud. Rep."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"99","article-title":"Animal leptospirosis","volume":"387","author":"Ellis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Calvopi\u00f1a, M., Romero-Alvarez, D., Vasconez, E., Valverde-Mu\u00f1oz, G., Trueba, G., Garcia-Bereguiain, M.A., and Orlando, S.A. (2023). Leptospirosis in Ecuador: Current status and future prospects. Trop. Med. Infect. Dis., 29.","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed8040202"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"835","DOI":"10.1007\/s10096-019-03797-4","article-title":"Leptospirosis: A neglected tropical zoonotic infection of public health importance\u2014An updated review","volume":"39","author":"Karpagam","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hamond, C., Tibbs-Cortes, B., Fernandes, L.G.V., LeCount, K., Putz, E.J., Anderson, T., Camp, P., Stuber, T., Hicks, J., and van der Linden, H. (2025). Leptospira gorisiae sp. nov, L. cinconiae sp. nov, L. mgodei sp. nov, L. milleri sp. nov and L. iowaensis sp. nov: Five new species isolated from water sources in the Midwestern United States. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol., 75.","DOI":"10.1099\/ijsem.0.006595"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101045","DOI":"10.1016\/j.onehlt.2025.101045","article-title":"A rst insight into the occurrence of Leptospira, Brucella and Coxiella burnetii infections in wild mammals rescued from illegal trade in Ecuador: A proxy for one health conservation policies","volume":"20","author":"Rivera","year":"2025","journal-title":"One Health"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101083","DOI":"10.1016\/j.onehlt.2025.101083","article-title":"High prevalence and diversity of Leptospira pathogenic serogroups in pigs, cows and free roaming dogs from undeserved rural communities in the coastal region of Ecuador","volume":"20","author":"Orlando","year":"2025","journal-title":"One Health"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107677","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2025.107677","article-title":"High prevalence and diversity of Leptospira pathogenic serovars in synanthropic fauna from Guayaquil city in Ecuador","volume":"267","author":"Orlando","year":"2025","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100948","DOI":"10.1016\/j.onehlt.2024.100948","article-title":"Leptospirosis Outbreak in Ecuador in 2023: A Pilot Study for Surveillance from a One Health Perspective","volume":"19","author":"Orlando","year":"2024","journal-title":"One Health"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"(2025, March 07). Leptospirosis (Leptospira interrogans) 2025 Case Definition, Available online: https:\/\/ndc.services.cdc.gov\/case-definitions\/leptospirosis\/."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barragan, V., Nieto, N., Keim, P., and Pearson, T. (2017). Meta-Analysis to Estimate the Load of Leptospira Excreted in Urine: Beyond Rats as Important Sources of Transmission in Low-Income Rural Communities. BMC Res. Notes, 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13104-017-2384-4"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mason, M.R., Encina, C., Sreevatsan, S., Mu\u00f1oz-Zanzi, C., and Picardeau, M. (2016). Distribution and Diversity of Pathogenic Leptospira Species in Peri-domestic Surface Waters from South Central Chile. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004895"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.47665\/tb.38.2.047","article-title":"Distribution of pathogenic Leptospira in environmental water and soils of selected recreational forests in Perak, Malaysia","volume":"38","author":"Yap","year":"2021","journal-title":"Trop. Biomed."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schneider, A.G., Casanovas-Massana, A., Hacker, K.P., Wunder, E.A., Begon, M., Reis, M.G., Childs, J.E., Costa, F., Lindow, J.C., and Ko, A.I. (2018). Quantification of pathogenic Leptospira in the soils of a Brazilian urban slum. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0006415"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Calvopi\u00f1a, M., V\u00e1sconez, E., Coral-Almeida, M., Romero-Alvarez, D., Garcia-Bereguiain, M.A., Orlando, A., and Coburn, J. (2022). Leptospirosis: Morbidity, mortality, and spatial distribution of hospitalized cases in Ecuador. A nationwide study 2000\u20132020. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010430"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100140","DOI":"10.1016\/j.onehlt.2020.100140","article-title":"High seroprevalence of anti-Leptospira spp. antibodies in domestic and wild mammals from a mixed use rescue center in Ecuador: Lessons for \u201cOne Health\u201d based conservation strategies","volume":"10","author":"Orlando","year":"2020","journal-title":"One Health"},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"787","article-title":"Determination of the seroprevalence of Leptospira spp. and the main serovars circulating in cattle in the province of Manab\u00ed, Ecuador","volume":"38","author":"Macias","year":"2019","journal-title":"Rev.\u2014Off. Int. Epizoot."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miller, E., Barragan, V., Chiriboga, J., Weddell, C., Luna, L., Jim\u00e9nez, D.J., Aleman, J., Mihaljevic, J.R., Olivas, S., and Marks, J. (2021). Leptospira in river and soil in a highly endemic area of Ecuador. BMC Microbiol., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12866-020-02069-y"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Orlando, S.A., Paez Martinez, K., Sanchez, E., de la Cruz, C., Calderon, J., Arcos, F., Torres-Lasso, P., Calvopi\u00f1a, M., and Garcia-Bereguiain, M.A. (2023). Racehorses from a breeding farm in Tropical Ecuador have a high seroprevalence of anti-Leptospira spp. antibodies: A paradigm for leptospirosis management from a One Health perspective. Front. Trop. Dis., 4.","DOI":"10.3389\/fitd.2023.1061038"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barragan, V., Chiriboga, J., Miller, E., Olivas, S., Birdsell, D., Hepp, C., Hornstra, H., Schupp, J.M., Morales, M., and Gonzalez, M. (2016). High Leptospira Diversity in Animals and Humans Complicates the Search for Common Reservoirs of Human Disease in Rural Ecuador. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004990"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2141","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2112.140659","article-title":"High prevalence of intermediate Leptospira spp. DNA in febrile humans from urban and rural Ecuador","volume":"21","author":"Chiriboga","year":"2015","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ruano, M.P., Burgos-Mac\u0131as, D.I., Goicochea, C.A.B., Zambrano Aguayo, M.D., Sandoval Valencia, H.P., Falconi Flores, M.A., Vera Loor, L.A., Revelo Ruales, A.P., and Fonseca-Rodr\u00edguez, O. (2020). Seroprevalence and risk factors of bovine leptospirosis in the province of Manab\u00ed, Ecuador. Comp. Immunol. Microbiol. Infect. Dis., 72.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cimid.2020.101527"},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"55","article-title":"Evidencia Molecular de Leptospira Interrogans Sensu Stricto En Cavia porcellus (Cuyes) Destinados Para El Consumo Humano En El Municipio de Pasto, Nari\u00f1o","volume":"24","year":"2022","journal-title":"Univ. Y Salud"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.54753\/cedamaz.v13i1.1711","article-title":"Estudio Epidemiol\u00f3gico de Leptospirosis En Cobayos En La Regi\u00f3n Interandina Del Sur Del Ecuador","volume":"13","year":"2023","journal-title":"CEDAMAZ"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e19043","DOI":"10.15381\/rivep.v31i4.19043","article-title":"Determinaci\u00f3n de Anticuerpos Contra Serovares de Leptospira Spp. En Cuyes de Crianza Familiar-Comercial En Cajabamba, Per\u00fa","volume":"31","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rev. De Investig. Vet. Del Per\u00fa"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Luna Castilla, S.A., Morales-Cauti, S.M., and Determinaci\u00f3n Serol\u00f3gica de T\u00edtulos de Anticuerpos Contra Leptospira Interrogans En Cuyes (Cavia porcellus) Con Historial de Abortos En Crianza Intensiva Del Distrido de Concepci\u00f3n, Junin (2025, June 04). AGRIS\u2014Int. Syst. Agric. Sci. Technol., Available online: https:\/\/agris.fao.org\/search\/en\/providers\/125069\/records\/6749826c7625988a3722e295."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1007\/s10393-017-1210-8","article-title":"Molecular epidemiology of leptospira serogroup pomona infections among wild and domestic animals in spain","volume":"14","author":"Arent","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ecohealth"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mwachui, M.A., Crump, L., Hartskeerl, R., Zinsstag, J., and Hattendorf, J. (2015). Environmental and behavioural determinants of leptospirosis transmission: A systematic review. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003843"},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"1","article-title":"Detecci\u00f3n de Anticuerpos Contra Los Serovares de Leptospira Interrogans En Cuyes de Crianza Intensiva En Lima","volume":"18","author":"Vexelman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Rev. Electr\u00f3nica Vet. REDVET"}],"container-title":["Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2414-6366\/10\/9\/256\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:42:12Z","timestamp":1760035332000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2414-6366\/10\/9\/256"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,8]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]}},"alternative-id":["tropicalmed10090256"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/tropicalmed10090256","relation":{},"ISSN":["2414-6366"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2414-6366","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,8]]}}}