{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,14]],"date-time":"2026-07-14T02:36:56Z","timestamp":1783996616139,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,19]],"date-time":"2026-02-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1771459200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"The Agence Fran\u00e7aise de D\u00e9veloppement (AFD) Group funds","award":["CZZ2579 01 L"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CZZ2579 01 L"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["TropicalMed"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Tuberculosis (TB) remains a major global health challenge, with transmission influenced by the incidence of contagious people with TB, the duration of infectivity, and the probability of contact with susceptible individuals. This review synthesizes recent evidence on established and emerging risk factors influencing TB transmission, particularly in light of global trends such as migration, urbanization, and demographic shifts, to guide future prevention and control strategies. This scoping review maps and synthesizes evidence from systematic reviews on risk factors for Mycobacterium tuberculosis exposure. Methods: A preliminary general literature search was conducted in PubMed on 25 August 2024, using the keywords \u201ctuberculosis,\u201d \u201crisk factors,\u201d and \u201csystematic review.\u201d A subsequent targeted search focused on systematic reviews published since 2000 that examined social and environmental determinants of exposure to M. tuberculosis identified in the general search. Original research and reviews spanning pre-2000 were excluded. Data extraction and synthesis followed PRISMA-ScR guidelines. Results: Of the 344 systematic reviews identified, 14 met the eligibility criteria, reporting on key risk factors contributing to the incidence of contagious people with TB, the duration of infectivity, and the probability of contact. These risk factors included homelessness, migration, occupational exposure, urbanization, climate change, and air pollution. The findings emphasize the complex interrelated role of social and environmental determinants in driving TB transmission. Conclusion: This review highlights the need for a multi-sectoral approach to TB, as climate change, air pollution, overcrowding, stigma, and limited healthcare access exacerbate established risks related to poverty. Effective prevention and control require targeted interventions that address these interconnected factors.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed11020058","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,19]],"date-time":"2026-02-19T08:51:09Z","timestamp":1771491069000},"page":"58","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Series 1: Behind the Spread: A Scoping Review of Risk Factors for Exposure to Mycobacterium tuberculosis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4422-1185","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sonia","family":"Menon","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 75001 Paris, France"},{"name":"Epitech Research, 1160 Auderghem, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6113-9741","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anthony","family":"Harries","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 75001 Paris, France"},{"name":"Department of Clinical Research, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London WC1E 7HT, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3415-672X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Riitta","family":"Dlodlo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 75001 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gis\u00e8le","family":"Badoum","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 75001 Paris, France"},{"name":"Unit\u00e9 de Formation et de Recherche en Sciences de la Sant\u00e9 (UFR\/SDS), Universit\u00e9 Joseph KI-ZERBO, Ouagadougou P.O. Box 7021, Burkina Faso"},{"name":"Service de Pneumologie, Centre Hospitalier et Universitaire de Yalgado Ou\u00e9draogo (CNHU-YO), Ouagadougou P.O. Box 7022, Burkina Faso"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-2837-7723","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammed","family":"Dogo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 75001 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Olivia","family":"Mbitikon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 75001 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4233-0871","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pranay","family":"Sinha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 75001 Paris, France"},{"name":"Section of Infectious Diseases, Boston University Chobanian and Avedisian School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, USA"},{"name":"Boston Medical Center, Boston, MA 02118, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7055-3183","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yan","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 75001 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jyoti","family":"Jaju","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 75001 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aung","family":"Soe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 75001 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anisha","family":"Singh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 75001 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bharati","family":"Kalottee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 75001 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8928-6732","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kobto","family":"Koura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 75001 Paris, France"},{"name":"Unit\u00e9 Mixte de Recherche MERIT (UMR261), Universit\u00e9 Paris Cit\u00e9, Institut de Recherche pour le D\u00e9veloppement (IRD), 75006 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Hans, R.L. (2024, November 05). Epidemiologic Basis of Tuberculosis Control. Available online: https:\/\/tbrieder.org\/epidemiology\/epidemiology.html."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.5588\/ijtld.11.0158","article-title":"Tuberculosis: Still a social disease","volume":"15","author":"Raviglione","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, J.Y., Kwon, N., Goo, G.Y., and Cho, S.I. (2022). Inadequate housing and pulmonary tuberculosis: A systematic review. BMC Public Health, 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-022-12879-6"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Koura, K.G., and Harries, A.D. (2024). The Trend of Tuberculosis Case Notification Rates from 1995 to 2022 by Country Income and World Health Organization Region. Trop. Med. Infect. Dis., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed9120294"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Federal Statistical Office of Germany (2025, June 13). International Statistics. The Largest Cities Worldwide in 2025. Available online: https:\/\/www.destatis.de\/EN\/Themes\/Countries-Regions\/International-Statistics\/Data-Topic\/Population-Labour-Social-Issues\/DemographyMigration\/UrbanPopulation.html?templateQueryString=the+largest+cities+worldwide+in+2025."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"United Nations Information Service Vienna (2025, June 13). Africa and Asia to Lead Urban Population Growth in the Next Four Decades, New Challenges of Providing Urban Jobs, Housing, Energy and Infrastructure Seen by the UN. Available online: https:\/\/unis.unvienna.org\/unis\/en\/pressrels\/2012\/unisinf441.html#:~:text=VIENNA%2F%20NEW%20YORK%2C%205%20April,1.9%20billion%20to%203.3%20billion."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"International Migration Organisation (2025, June 13). Migration & Tuberculosis: A Pressing Issue. Available online: https:\/\/www.iom.int\/sites\/g\/files\/tmzbdl486\/files\/migrated_files\/What-We-Do\/docs\/Migration-Tuberculosis-A-Pressing-Issue.pdf."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1579","DOI":"10.1007\/s00484-021-02117-w","article-title":"A scoping review on climate change and tuberculosis","volume":"65","author":"Maharjan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Biometeorol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.7326\/M18-0850","article-title":"PRISMA extension for scoping reviews (PRISMA-ScR): Checklist and explanation","volume":"169","author":"Tricco","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Stop TB Partnership (2025, June 13). Words Matter: Suggested Language and Usage for Tuberculosis Communications. Available online: https:\/\/www.stoptb.org\/words-matter-language-guide."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.11606\/s1518-8787.2022056003964","article-title":"Tuberculosis, vulnerabilities, and HIV in homeless persons: A systematic review","volume":"56","author":"Gioseffi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Rev. Saude Publica"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e03688","DOI":"10.1590\/s1980-220x2019039603688","article-title":"Tuberculosis in the street population: A systematic review","volume":"55","author":"Hino","year":"2021","journal-title":"Rev. Esc. Enferm. USP"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100225","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jctube.2021.100225","article-title":"Effects of migration on tuberculosis epidemiological indicators in low and medium tuberculosis incidence countries: A systematic review","volume":"23","author":"Jackson","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clin. Tuberc. Other Mycobact. Dis."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Proen\u00e7a, R., Mattos Souza, F., Lisboa Bastos, M., Caetano, R., Braga, J.U., Faerstein, E., and Trajman, A. (2020). Active and latent tuberculosis in refugees and asylum seekers: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Public Health, 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-020-08907-y"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1007\/s11524-018-0319-6","article-title":"The Risk of Tuberculosis among Populations Living in Slum Settings: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis","volume":"96","author":"Noykhovich","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Urban Health"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ofx137","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofx137","article-title":"Risk of Tuberculosis Infection and Disease for Health Care Workers: An Updated Meta-Analysis","volume":"4","author":"Uden","year":"2017","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"820","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajic.2022.01.021","article-title":"Prevalence and incidence of tuberculosis in health workers: A systematic review of the literature","volume":"50","author":"Lima","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Infect. Control."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grenzel, M.L., Grande, A.J., Paniago, A.M.M., Pompilio, M.A., de Oliveira, S., and Trajman, A. (2018). Tuberculosis among correctional facility workers: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0207400"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2416791","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pulmoe.2023.05.001","article-title":"Silicosis and tuberculosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"31","author":"Jamshidi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Pulmonology"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"857","DOI":"10.1097\/EDE.0000000000000877","article-title":"Drivers of Seasonal Variation in Tuberculosis Incidence: Insights from a Systematic Review and Mathematical Model","volume":"29","author":"Tedijanto","year":"2018","journal-title":"Epidemiology"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113436","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2022.113436","article-title":"The impact of climate change on the risk factors for tuberculosis: A systematic review","volume":"212","author":"Kharwadkar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11282","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-15443-9","article-title":"A systematic review and meta-analysis on the association between ambient air pollution and pulmonary tuberculosis","volume":"12","author":"Dimala","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130342","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2021.130342","article-title":"Association between ambient air pollution and tuberculosis risk: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"277","author":"Xiang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1274","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(18)30313-9","article-title":"Preventing tuberculosis among high-risk workers","volume":"6","author":"Gottesfeld","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2088","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-52278-y","article-title":"An investigation of the effects of meteorological factors on the incidence of tuberculosis","volume":"14","author":"Chang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuro.2011.10.006","article-title":"Particulate matter neurotoxicity in culture is size-dependent","volume":"36","author":"Gillespie","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neurotoxicology"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pareek, M., Greenaway, C., Noori, T., Munoz, J., and Zenner, D. (2016). The impact of migration on tuberculosis epidemiology and control in high-income countries: A review. BMC Med., 14.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-016-0595-5"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Blecher, E., and Ross, H. (2025, June 13). Tobacco Use in Africa: Tobacco Control Through Prevention. Available online: https:\/\/www.iccp-portal.org\/sites\/default\/files\/resources\/acspc-041294.pdf."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2302852","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2024.2302852","article-title":"Impact of fine particulate matter on latent tuberculosis infection and active tuberculosis in older adults: A population-based multicentre cohort study","volume":"13","author":"Guo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Emerg. Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.annepidem.2019.07.003","article-title":"Climate and air pollution alter incidence of tuberculosis in Beijing, China","volume":"37","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ann. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2023). Adaptation and Implementation of WHO\u2019s Multisectoral Accountability Framework to End TB (MAF-TB): Operational Guidance, World Health Organization. Available online: https:\/\/cdn.who.int\/media\/docs\/default-source\/hq-tuberculosis\/high-level-meeting-on-ending-tb\/operational-guidance-adaptation-and-implementation-of-the-who-multisectoral-accountability-framework-to-end-tb_maf-tb.pdf?sfvrsn=cfce2277_6&download=true."}],"container-title":["Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2414-6366\/11\/2\/58\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,27]],"date-time":"2026-03-27T15:11:07Z","timestamp":1774624267000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2414-6366\/11\/2\/58"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,19]]},"references-count":31,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]}},"alternative-id":["tropicalmed11020058"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/tropicalmed11020058","relation":{},"ISSN":["2414-6366"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2414-6366","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,19]]}}}