{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T16:54:43Z","timestamp":1785430483478,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,2]],"date-time":"2026-04-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1775088000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"The Agence Fran\u00e7aise de D\u00e9veloppement (AFD) Group","award":["CZZ2579 01 L"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CZZ2579 01 L"]}]},{"award":["CZZ2579 01 L"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CZZ2579 01 L"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/04tqhj682","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["TropicalMed"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Tuberculosis (TB) remains a major global health threat, particularly in low- and middle-income countries, with TB infection (TBI) serving as the primary source of TB disease. While HIV infection has long been recognised as a major risk factor for TB progression, the rise of Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs), which may exert immunosuppressive effects, further compounded by their treatment, contributes to increased TB susceptibility. This scoping review synthesises evidence from systematic reviews on medical and behavioural risk factors for TBI progression to TB disease, for both asymptomatic and symptomatic disease. Methods: A preliminary literature search was conducted on 11 January 2025, in PUBMED using the keywords \u201ctuberculosis,\u201d \u201casymptomatic or subclinical tuberculosis\u201d \u201crisk factors,\u201d and \u201csystematic review\u201d followed by targeted reviews on the identified medical and behavioural risk factors for TB infection progression to TB disease. Results: A total of 25 systematic reviews were included. Medical risk factors for progression from TB infection to TB disease included diabetes mellitus (DM), chronic kidney disease (CKD), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), undernutrition (including iron and vitamin D deficiency), cancer\u2014particularly haematological malignancies\u2014and immunosuppressive therapies (TNF-\u03b1 inhibitors and glucocorticoids). Iron and vitamin D deficiency, particularly severe deficiency, is linked to increased TB risk, especially among people living with HIV. Behavioural risk factors, including tobacco, drug, and alcohol use, were also highlighted. Geographic variations in TB prevalence, diagnostic practices, and healthcare systems contributed to differences in risk estimates across reviews. No systematic reviews were identified that examined risk factors for asymptomatic TB. Conclusions: The convergence of TB with NCDs, compounded by immunosuppressive therapies, poses a public health challenge in high TB burden settings. Effective TB prevention requires targeted screening, along with enhanced management of these NCDs. Nutritional support, particularly screening and treatment of anaemia and vitamin D deficiency, may benefit individuals with TBI, comorbid NCDs, and HIV. A multidisciplinary approach, integrating behavioural interventions and tailored prevention strategies, is essential to achieving WHO\u2019s End TB targets. Addressing the evidence gap on risk factors for asymptomatic TB is also critical to improve early detection and interrupt transmission.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed11040094","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,2]],"date-time":"2026-04-02T16:51:02Z","timestamp":1775148662000},"page":"94","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Series 3: From Infection to Disease: A Global Scoping Review of Medical and Behavioural Determinants of Progression from TB Infection to TB Disease"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4422-1185","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sonia","family":"Menon","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 75001 Paris, France"},{"name":"Epitech Research, 1160 Auderghem, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6113-9741","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anthony D.","family":"Harries","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 75001 Paris, France"},{"name":"Department of Clinical Research, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London WC1E 7HT, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3415-672X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Riitta A.","family":"Dlodlo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 75001 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gis\u00e8le","family":"Badoum","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 75001 Paris, France"},{"name":"Unit\u00e9 de Formation et de Recherche en Sciences de la Sant\u00e9 (UFR\/SDS), Universit\u00e9 Joseph KI-ZERBO, Ouagadougou P.O. Box 7021, Burkina Faso"},{"name":"Service de Pneumologie, Centre Hospitalier et Universitaire de Yalgado Ou\u00e9draogo (CNHU-YO), Ouagadougou P.O. Box 7022, Burkina Faso"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-2837-7723","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammed F.","family":"Dogo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 75001 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Olivia B.","family":"Mbitikon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 75001 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4233-0871","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pranay","family":"Sinha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 75001 Paris, France"},{"name":"Section of Infectious Diseases, Boston University Chobanian and Avedisian School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, USA"},{"name":"Boston Medical Center, Boston, MA 02118, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7055-3183","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yan","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 75001 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jyoti","family":"Jaju","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 75001 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aung Naing","family":"Soe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 75001 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anisha","family":"Singh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 75001 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bharati","family":"Kalottee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 75001 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8928-6732","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kobto G.","family":"Koura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 75001 Paris, France"},{"name":"Unit\u00e9 Mixte de Recherche MERIT (UMR261), Universit\u00e9 Paris Cit\u00e9, Institut de Recherche pour le D\u00e9veloppement (IRD), 75006 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"World Health Organization (WHO) (2025). Global Tuberculosis Report 2025, World Health Organization. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/teams\/global-tuberculosis-programme\/tb-reports."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Koura, K.G., and Harries, A.D. (2024). The Trend of Tuberculosis Case Notification Rates from 1995 to 2022 by Country Income and World Health Organization Region. Trop. Med. Infect. Dis., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed9120294"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1900655","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.00655-2019","article-title":"The global prevalence of latent tuberculosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"54","author":"Cohen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S241","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijtb.2022.10.012","article-title":"Immune issues in elderly with TB","volume":"69","author":"Asokan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Indian J. Tuberc."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"244","article-title":"Host genetics and tuberculosis: Theory of genetic polymorphism and tuberculosis","volume":"36","author":"Aravindan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lung India"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sultana, Z.Z., Hoque, F.U., Beyene, J., Akhlak-Ul-Islam, M., Khan, M.H.R., Ahmed, S., Hawlader, D.H., and Hossain, A. (2021). HIV infection and multidrug resistant tuberculosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Infect. Dis., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-020-05749-2"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1097\/EDE.0000000000001271","article-title":"Time Since Infection and Risks of Future Disease for Individuals with Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infection in the United States","volume":"32","author":"Menzies","year":"2021","journal-title":"Epidemiology"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e830","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa1402","article-title":"Subclinical Tuberculosis Disease\u2014A Review and Analysis of Prevalence Surveys to Inform Definitions, Burden, Associations, and Screening Methodology","volume":"73","author":"Frascella","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230208","DOI":"10.1183\/16000617.0208-2023","article-title":"Subclinical tuberculosis: A meta-analysis of prevalence and scoping review of definitions, prevalence and clinical characteristics","volume":"33","author":"Teo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. Rev."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1269","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.00084310","article-title":"Tuberculosis and noncommunicable diseases: Neglected links and missed opportunities","volume":"37","author":"Creswell","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(23)01301-6","article-title":"Global, regional, and national burden of diabetes from 1990 to 2021, with projections of prevalence to 2050: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021","volume":"402","author":"Ong","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2019","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)32374-6","article-title":"The Lancet Commission on diabetes: Using data to transform diabetes care and patient lives","volume":"396","author":"Chan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"649","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-022-01738-x","article-title":"Priorities for cancer research in low- and middle-income countries: A global perspective","volume":"28","author":"Pramesh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.kint.2023.09.002","article-title":"KDIGO 2024 Clinical Practice Guideline for the management of LUPUS NEPHRITIS","volume":"105","author":"Rovin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"100625","article-title":"Reducing the gap of chronic kidney disease in low- and middle-income countries: What is missing?","volume":"28","author":"Franco","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet Reg. Health Am."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2346598","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2023.46598","article-title":"Global Burden of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Through 2050","volume":"6","author":"Boers","year":"2023","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111572","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclinepi.2024.111572","article-title":"\u201cHow-to\u201d: Scoping review?","volume":"176","author":"Pollock","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Clin. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.7326\/M18-0850","article-title":"PRISMA extension for scoping reviews (PRISMA-ScR): Checklist and explanation","volume":"169","author":"Tricco","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Stop TB Partnership (2025, June 13). Words Matter: Suggested Language and Usage for Tuberculosis Communications. Available online: https:\/\/www.stoptb.org\/words-matter-language-guide."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Rifai, R.H., Pearson, F., Critchley, J.A., and Abu-Raddad, L.J. (2017). Association between diabetes mellitus and active tuberculosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0187967"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1058","DOI":"10.1111\/tmi.13133","article-title":"Risk of active tuberculosis among people with diabetes mellitus: Systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"23","author":"Hayashi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trop. Med. Int. Health"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Foe-Essomba, J.R., Kenmoe, S., Tchatchouang, S., Ebogo-Belobo, J.T., Mbaga, D.S., Kengne-Nd\u00e9, C., Mahamat, G., Kame-Ngasse, G.I., Noura, E.A., and Mbongue Mikangue, C.A. (2021). Diabetes mellitus and tuberculosis, a systematic review and meta-analysis with sensitivity analysis for studies comparable for confounders. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0261246"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jeon, C.Y., and Murray, M.B. (2008). Diabetes mellitus increases the risk of active tuberculosis: A systematic review of 13 observational studies. PLoS Med., 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.0050181"},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"CD015890","article-title":"Undernutrition as a risk factor for tuberculosis disease","volume":"6","author":"Franco","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aibana, O., Huang, C.C., Aboud, S., Arnedo-Pena, A., Becerra, M.C., Bellido-Blasco, J.B., Bhosale, R., Calderon, R., Chiang, S., and Contreras, C. (2019). Vitamin D status and risk of incident tuberculosis disease: A nested case-control study, systematic review, and individual-participant data meta-analysis. PLoS Med., 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1002907"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1186\/s12199-020-00931-z","article-title":"Anemia as a risk factor for tuberculosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"26","author":"Gelaw","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Health Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciw838","article-title":"Risk of Active Tuberculosis in Patients with Cancer: A Systematic Review and Metaanalysis","volume":"64","author":"Cheng","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1700157","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.00157-2017","article-title":"Risk of tuberculosis in patients with solid cancers and haematological malignancies: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"50","author":"Dobler","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1194","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciad364","article-title":"Risk of Tuberculosis Disease in People with Chronic Kidney Disease Without Kidney Failure: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis","volume":"77","author":"Luczynski","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1493","DOI":"10.5588\/ijtld.15.0081","article-title":"Risk of active tuberculosis in chronic kidney disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"19","author":"Mota","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, Q., Liu, Y., Wang, W., Zhang, Y., Liu, K., Chen, S.H., and Chen, B. (2022). Incidence and prevalence of tuberculosis in systemic lupus erythematosus patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.938406"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/keaa478","article-title":"The risk of infections in adult patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: Systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"60","author":"Nicholson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103184","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2021.103184","article-title":"Latent tuberculosis infection reactivation in patients with multiple sclerosis in use of disease-modifying therapies: A systematic review","volume":"55","author":"Dantas","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1872","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/keu172","article-title":"Risk of tuberculosis in patients with chronic immune-mediated inflammatory diseases treated with biologics and tofacitinib: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials and long-term extension studies","volume":"53","author":"Souto","year":"2014","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2229","DOI":"10.3899\/jrheum.150057","article-title":"The Risk of Tuberculosis in Patients with Rheumatoid Arthritis Treated with Tumor Necrosis Factor-\u03b1 Antagonist. A Metaanalysis of Both Randomized Controlled Trials and Registry\/Cohort Studies","volume":"42","author":"Ai","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e012567","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2016-012567","article-title":"Risk of tuberculosis in patients treated with TNF-\u03b1 antagonists: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials","volume":"7","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1286","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.13-2137","article-title":"Use of inhaled corticosteroids in patients with COPD and the risk of TB and influenza: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials","volume":"145","author":"Dong","year":"2014","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2219","DOI":"10.2147\/COPD.S209273","article-title":"Inhaled Corticosteroids and Risk of Tuberculosis in Patients with Obstructive Lung Diseases: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Non-randomized Studies","volume":"14","author":"Castellana","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Chronic Obstr. Pulm. Dis."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.167.4.335","article-title":"Risk of Tuberculosis From Exposure to Tobacco Smoke: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis","volume":"167","author":"Bates","year":"2007","journal-title":"Arch. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"1049","article-title":"Tobacco and tuberculosis: A qualitative systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"11","author":"Slama","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3158","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268815001235","article-title":"Second-hand smoke and the risk of tuberculosis: A systematic review and a meta-analysis","volume":"143","author":"Dogar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Patra, J., Bhatia, M., Suraweera, W., Morris, S.K., Patra, C., Gupta, P.C., and Jha, P. (2015). Exposure to second-hand smoke and the risk of tuberculosis in children and adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis of 18 observational studies. PLoS Med., 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1001835"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"L\u00f6nnroth, K., Williams, B.G., Stadlin, S., Jaramillo, E., and Dye, C. (2008). Alcohol use as a risk factor for tuberculosis\u2014A systematic review. BMC Public Health, 8.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-8-289"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1277","DOI":"10.5588\/ijtld.18.0092","article-title":"Alcohol consumption and risk of tuberculosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"22","author":"Simou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ssekamatte, P., Sande, O.J., van Crevel, R., and Biraro, I.A. (2023). Immunologic, metabolic and genetic impact of diabetes on tuberculosis susceptibility. Front. Immunol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1122255"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2333","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.168.21.2333","article-title":"Risk of bloodstream infection in patients with chronic kidney disease not treated with dialysis","volume":"168","author":"James","year":"2008","journal-title":"Arch. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Silva, D., Silva, M.V.D., Barros, C.C.O., Alexandre, P.B.D., Tim\u00f3teo, R.P., Catarino, J.S., Sales-Campos, H., Machado, J.R., Rodrigues, D.B.R., and Oliveira, C.J. (2018). TNF-\u03b1 blockade impairs in vitro tuberculous granuloma formation and down modulate Th1, Th17 and Treg cytokines. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0194430"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1900164","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.00164-2019","article-title":"Global Strategy for the Diagnosis, Management, and Prevention of Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease: The GOLD science committee report 2019","volume":"53","author":"Singh","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2206","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.164.20.2206","article-title":"Cigarette Smoking and Infection","volume":"164","author":"Arcavi","year":"2004","journal-title":"Arch. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpcardiol.2009.10.002","article-title":"Growing epidemic of coronary heart disease in low- and middle-income countries","volume":"35","author":"Gaziano","year":"2010","journal-title":"Curr. Probl. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1563","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.01245-2015","article-title":"Management of latent Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection: WHO guidelines for low tuberculosis burden countries","volume":"46","author":"Getahun","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfw452","article-title":"Cigarette smoking and chronic kidney disease in the general population: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies","volume":"32","author":"Xia","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transpl."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2654","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.298.22.2654","article-title":"Active smoking and the risk of type 2 diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"298","author":"Willi","year":"2007","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Forey, B.A., Thornton, A.J., and Lee, P.N. (2011). Systematic review with meta-analysis of the epidemiological evidence relating smoking to COPD, chronic bronchitis and emphysema. BMC Pulm. Med., 11.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2466-11-36"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2016.01.001","article-title":"Smoke and autoimmunity: The fire behind the disease","volume":"15","author":"Perricone","year":"2016","journal-title":"Autoimmun. Rev."}],"container-title":["Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2414-6366\/11\/4\/94\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,2]],"date-time":"2026-04-02T17:18:17Z","timestamp":1775150297000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2414-6366\/11\/4\/94"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,2]]},"references-count":55,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]}},"alternative-id":["tropicalmed11040094"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/tropicalmed11040094","relation":{},"ISSN":["2414-6366"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2414-6366","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,2]]}}}