{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T14:45:26Z","timestamp":1785422726559,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]],"date-time":"2026-04-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1776384000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100031573","name":"Afrique One-ASPIRE","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["Del-15-008"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Del-15-008"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100031573","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Afrique One-REACH","award":["Del-22-011"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Del-22-011"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000780","name":"European Union","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000780","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/019w4f821","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["TropicalMed"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Toxoplasmosis is a widely distributed zoonosis caused by the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii. Infection during pregnancy is a major public health concern due to its potential impact on both maternal health and fetal development. Early detection of maternal infection is critical to prevent adverse outcomes; however, maternal signs are often subtle, non-specific or absent, complicating timely diagnosis. This scoping review aimed to map and synthesise existing evidence on early maternal signs, pregnancy and foetal outcomes, frequently assessed risk factors, and diagnostic approaches of toxoplasmosis in expectant mothers in Africa. The review was done in accordance with the PRISMA-ScR guidelines. A literature search of PubMed, Scopus, ResearchGate, and Google Scholar was performed to identify studies published between 2000 and 2025. Retrieved records were managed using Zotero (version 8.0.4) for deduplication and screening. Only English-language studies conducted in Africa and reporting relevant maternal or clinical data were included. A total of 28 cross-sectional studies were included. Lymphadenopathy (25.0%) was the most frequently reported maternal early sign, followed by flu-like illness, asymptomatic infection, low-grade or mild fever, and fatigue or malaise (each 10.7%). Congenital anomalies (50.0%) and miscarriage or spontaneous abortion (42.9%) were the most commonly reported foetal and pregnancy outcomes. Frequently reported risk factors were exposure to cat faeces (57.1%) and ingestion of undercooked or raw meat (42.9%). Diagnostic approaches were commonly enzyme-based immunoassays (78.6%), with limited use of RDTs and molecular methods. These findings suggest the need for improved early detection and prevention strategies in high-risk, low-resource African settings. Enhancing routine screening, health education, and access to appropriate diagnostics are considered. Future studies should consider adopting standardised reporting and integrating sensitive, affordable, rapid diagnostic approaches to enhance early detection and reduce the burden of congenital toxoplasmosis.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed11040104","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]],"date-time":"2026-04-17T14:24:51Z","timestamp":1776435891000},"page":"104","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Early Warning Signs, Effects, Risk Factors, and Diagnostic Indicators of Toxoplasmosis in Pregnant Women in Africa: A Scoping Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-4270-3378","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cherotich Jesca","family":"Tangus","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Pathology, Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, Nairobi P.O. Box 29053-00625, Kenya"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ndichu","family":"Maingi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Pathology, Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, Nairobi P.O. Box 29053-00625, Kenya"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"James Chege","family":"Nganga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Pathology, Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, Nairobi P.O. Box 29053-00625, Kenya"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Davis Karanja","family":"Njuguna","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Pathology, Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, Nairobi P.O. Box 29053-00625, Kenya"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kariuki","family":"Njaanake","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi P.O. Box 19676-00202, Kenya"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0574-8793","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bruno Enagnon","family":"Lokonon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratoire de Biomath\u00e9matiques et d\u2019Estimations Foresti\u00e8res (LABEF), Faculty of Agronomic Sciences (FSA), University of Abomey-Calavi, Abomey-Calavi P.O. Box 04 BP 1525, Benin"},{"name":"Centre Suisse de Recherches Scientifiques en C\u00f4te d\u2019Ivoire (CSRS), Abidjan P.O. Box 01 BP 1303, C\u00f4te d\u2019Ivoire"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6499-5946","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gloria Ivy","family":"Mensah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, Accra P.O. Box LG581, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kennedy Kwasi","family":"Addo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, Accra P.O. Box LG581, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4366-7046","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andr\u00e9e Prisca","family":"Ndjoug Ndour","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"\u00c9cole Inter-\u00c9tats des Sciences et M\u00e9decine V\u00e9t\u00e9rinaires (EISMV), Dakar BP 5077, Senegal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4190-8202","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bassirou","family":"Bonfoh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre Suisse de Recherches Scientifiques en C\u00f4te d\u2019Ivoire (CSRS), Abidjan P.O. Box 01 BP 1303, C\u00f4te d\u2019Ivoire"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"1178633720948872","article-title":"Seroprevalence of Anti\u2014Toxoplasma gondii Antibodies and Associated Factors Among Pregnant Women Attending Antenatal Care at Debre Markos Referral Hospital, Northwest Ethiopia","volume":"13","author":"Mulugeta","year":"2020","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Res. Treat."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1137","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.23-0187","article-title":"Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and Associated Risk Factors among Pregnant Women in Algeria","volume":"110","author":"Sebaa","year":"2024","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. 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