{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,5]],"date-time":"2026-06-05T14:11:06Z","timestamp":1780668666961,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":94,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,19]],"date-time":"2018-12-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1545177600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["TropicalMed"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The stumbling block for the continued, single-drug use of praziquantel (PZQ) against schistosomiasis is less justified by the risk of drug resistance than by the fact that this drug is inactive against juvenile parasites, which will mature and start egg production after chemotherapy. Artemisinin derivatives, currently used against malaria in the form of artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT), provide an opportunity as these drugs are not only active against malaria plasmodia, but surprisingly also against juvenile schistosomes. An artemisinin\/PZQ combination would be complementary, and potentially additive, as it would kill two schistosome life cycle stages and thus confer a transmission-blocking modality to current chemotherapy. We focus here on single versus combined regimens in endemic settings. Although the risk of artemisinin resistance, already emerging with respect to malaria therapy in Southeast Asia, prevents use in countries where ACT is needed for malaria care, an artemisinin-enforced praziquantel treatment (APT) should be acceptable in regions of North Africa (including Egypt), the Middle East, China, and Brazil that are not endemic for malaria. Thanks to recent progress with respect to high-resolution diagnostics, based on circulating schistosome antigens in humans and molecular approaches for snail surveys, it should be possible to keep areas scheduled for schistosomiasis elimination under surveillance, bringing rapid response to bear on problems arising. The next steps would be to investigate where and for how long APT should be applied to make a lasting impact. A large-scale field trial in an area with modest transmission should tell how apt this approach is.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed3040125","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,19]],"date-time":"2018-12-19T12:12:44Z","timestamp":1545221564000},"page":"125","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":42,"title":["Artemether and Praziquantel: Origin, Mode of Action, Impact, and Suggested Application for Effective Control of Human Schistosomiasis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"3","author":[{"given":"Robert","family":"Bergquist","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Ingerod, SE-454 94 Brastad, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2574-5629","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hala","family":"Elmorshedy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Medicine, Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh 11671, Saudi Arabia"},{"name":"Department of Tropical Health, High Institute of Public Health, Alexandria University, Alexandria 21561, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"WHO (2018, December 03). Accelerating Work to Overcome the Global Impact of Neglected Tropical Diseases. Available online: http:\/\/www.who.int\/neglected_diseases\/NTD_RoadMap_2012_Fullversion.pdf."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"WHO (2018, August 20). Schistosomiasis Fact Sheet of 20 February 2018. Available online: http:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/schistosomiasis."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hotez, P.J., Asojo, O.A., and Adesina, A.M. (2012). Nigeria: \u201cGround Zero\u201d for the high prevalence neglected tropical diseases. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0001600"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1017\/S003118201000154X","article-title":"Efficacy of two praziquantel treatments among primary school children in an area of high Schistosoma mansoni endemicity, Nile Delta, Egypt","volume":"138","author":"Barakat","year":"2011","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2000.62.88","article-title":"The epidemiology of schistosomiasis in Egypt: Summary findings in nine governorates","volume":"62","author":"Galal","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1016\/j.idc.2012.03.004","article-title":"Schistosomiasis","volume":"26","author":"Gryseels","year":"2012","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sow, S., de Vlas, S.J., Stelma, F., Vereecken, K., Gryseels, B., and Polman, K. (2011). The contribution of water contact behavior to the high Schistosoma mansoni Infection rates observed in the Senegal River Basin. BMC Infect. Dis., 11.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2334-11-198"},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"767","article-title":"Multicentre trials of praziquantel in human schistosomiasis: Design and techniques","volume":"57","author":"Davis","year":"1979","journal-title":"Bull. World Health Organ."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2253","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(13)61949-2","article-title":"Human schistosomiasis","volume":"383","author":"Colley","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-308X(10)72006-6","article-title":"Schistosomiasis japonica control and research needs","volume":"72","author":"Zhou","year":"2010","journal-title":"Adv. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2009.11.012","article-title":"Parasites and poverty: The case of schistosomiasis","volume":"113","author":"King","year":"2010","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1260","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)32130-X","article-title":"Global, regional, and national disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) for 333 diseases and injuries and healthy life expectancy (HALE) for 195 countries and territories, 1990\u20132016: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016","volume":"390","author":"Hay","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2197","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(12)61689-4","article-title":"Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions, 1990\u20132010: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010","volume":"380","author":"Murray","year":"2012","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, J., Xu, J., Bergquist, R., Li, S.Z., and Zhou, X.N. (2018). \u201cFarewell to the God of Plague\u201d: The Importance of Political Commitment Towards the Elimination of Schistosomiasis. Trop. Med. Infect. Dis., 3.","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed3040108"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1217","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.2471","article-title":"The discovery of artemisinin (qinghaosu) and gifts from Chinese medicine","volume":"17","author":"Tu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"250","article-title":"The development of the antimalarial drugs with new type of chemical structure\u2013qinghaosu and dihydroqinghaosu","volume":"35","author":"Tu","year":"2004","journal-title":"Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Publ. Health"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1051\/parasite\/2011183215","article-title":"From bark to weed: The history of artemisinin","volume":"18","author":"Faurant","year":"2011","journal-title":"Parasite"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"855","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2011.08.024","article-title":"Artemisinin: Discovery from the Chinese herbal garden","volume":"146","author":"Miller","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1049","DOI":"10.1126\/science.3887571","article-title":"Qinghaosu (artemisinin): An antimalarial drug from China","volume":"228","author":"Klayman","year":"1985","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Gardner, B. (2002). A present from Chairman Mao. Welcome News Supplement 6: Research Directions in Malaria. Wellcome Trust, 25."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"9","article-title":"How Chinese scientists discovered qinghaosu (artemisinin) and developed its derivatives? What are the future perspectives?","volume":"58","author":"Li","year":"1998","journal-title":"Med. Trop. Rev. Corps Sante Colonial"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1879","DOI":"10.2174\/13895575113136660097","article-title":"Malaria and artemisinin derivatives: An updated review","volume":"13","author":"Ansari","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mini Rev. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10210","DOI":"10.1002\/anie.201601967","article-title":"Artemisinin-A Gift from Traditional Chinese Medicine to the World (Nobel Lecture)","volume":"55","author":"Tu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Angew. Chem."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1186\/s40249-015-0091-8","article-title":"Nobel prize for the artemisinin and ivermectin discoveries: A great boost towards elimination of the global infectious diseases of poverty","volume":"4","author":"Tambo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Infec. Dis. Poverty"},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"422","article-title":"Experimental studies on antischistosomal activity of qinghaosu","volume":"60","author":"Chen","year":"1980","journal-title":"Chin. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2016.10.005","article-title":"Schistosoma hemozoin and its possible roles","volume":"47","author":"Xiao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1038\/35005132","article-title":"The structure of malaria pigment beta-haematin","volume":"404","author":"Pagola","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(72)90002-8","article-title":"Comparison of malarial and schistosome pigment","volume":"66","author":"Homewood","year":"1972","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1444","DOI":"10.1021\/ar100070k","article-title":"Heme as trigger and target for trioxane-containing antimalarial drugs","volume":"43","author":"Meunier","year":"2010","journal-title":"Acc. Chem. Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1291","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.01033-07","article-title":"Relationship between antimalarial activity and heme alkylation for spiro- and dispiro-1,2,4-trioxolane antimalarials","volume":"52","author":"Creek","year":"2008","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1440","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.01537-06","article-title":"In vitro and in vivo activities of synthetic trioxolanes against major human schistosome species","volume":"51","author":"Xiao","year":"2007","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2403","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00082-11","article-title":"Trioxaquine PA1259 alkylates heme in the blood-feeding parasite Schistosoma mansoni","volume":"55","author":"Pradines","year":"2011","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2654","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jmedchem.6b01586","article-title":"Structure-Activity Relationship of the Antimalarial Ozonide Artefenomel (OZ439)","volume":"60","author":"Dong","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3259","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-014-3988-4","article-title":"Effect of ozonide OZ418 against Schistosoma japonicum harbored in mice","volume":"113","author":"Xue","year":"2014","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-4-201","article-title":"Efficacy of praziquantel and artemisinin derivatives for the treatment and prevention of human schistosomiasis: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"4","author":"Liu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1039\/B816679J","article-title":"Artemisinin and its derivatives: A novel class of anti-malarial and anti-cancer agents","volume":"39","author":"Chaturvedi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-010-2084-7","article-title":"Schistosoma japonicum-infected hamsters (Mesocricetus auratus) used as a model in experimental chemotherapy with praziquantel, artemether, and OZ compounds","volume":"108","author":"Xiao","year":"2011","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/S0035-9203(01)90336-0","article-title":"Artemether administered together with haemin damages schistosomes in vitro","volume":"95","author":"Xiao","year":"2001","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"306","article-title":"Experimental studies on early treatment of schistosomal infection with artemether","volume":"26","author":"Xiao","year":"1995","journal-title":"Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Publ. Health"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S4","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2875-8-S1-S4","article-title":"Understanding the pharmacokinetics of Coartem","volume":"8","author":"Djimde","year":"2009","journal-title":"Malar. J."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parint.2012.12.001","article-title":"Ca2+ channels and praziquantel: A view from the free world","volume":"62","author":"Chan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Parasitol. Int."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1016\/S0001-706X(00)00067-X","article-title":"Tegumental changes in 21-day-old Schistosoma mansoni harboured in mice treated with artemether","volume":"75","author":"Xiao","year":"2000","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.4155\/fmc.15.11","article-title":"What is the mechanism of action of praziquantel and how might resistance strike?","volume":"7","author":"Cupit","year":"2015","journal-title":"Future Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpddr.2018.08.003","article-title":"TRP channels as potential targets for antischistosomals","volume":"8","author":"Bais","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol. Drugs Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"1219","article-title":"Systematic review of benefits and harms of artemisinin-type compounds for preventing schistosomiasis","volume":"83","author":"Wu","year":"2003","journal-title":"Zhonghua Yi Xue Za Zhi"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/S1383-5769(00)00028-3","article-title":"Preventive effect of artemether in experimental animals infected with Schistosoma mansoni","volume":"49","author":"Shuhua","year":"2000","journal-title":"Parasitol. Int."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1016\/0014-4894(86)90184-0","article-title":"Schistosoma mansoni: Chemotherapy of infections of different ages","volume":"61","author":"Sabah","year":"1986","journal-title":"Exp. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00389899","article-title":"Praziquantel, a new board-spectrum antischistosomal agent","volume":"52","author":"Gonnert","year":"1977","journal-title":"Zeitschrift fur Parasitenkunde"},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"759","article-title":"Susceptibility of Schistosoma japonicum to different developmental stages to praziquantel","volume":"100","author":"Xiao","year":"1987","journal-title":"Chin. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1501","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-011-2670-3","article-title":"New insight into praziquantel against various developmental stages of schistosomes","volume":"109","author":"Wu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1453","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2005.05.002","article-title":"Effect of praziquantel on the immature stages of Schistosoma haematobium","volume":"35","author":"Botros","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"321","article-title":"Ultrastructural alterations of adult Schistosoma haematobium harbored in mice following artemether administration","volume":"24","author":"Xiao","year":"2006","journal-title":"Zhongguo Ji Sheng Chong Xue Yu Ji Sheng Chong Bing Za Zhi"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"957","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2006.03.007","article-title":"Effect of artemether administered alone or in combination with praziquantel to mice infected with Plasmodium berghei or Schistosoma mansoni or both","volume":"36","author":"Utzinger","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"WHO (2018, November 11). Q&A on artemisinin resistance. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/malaria\/media\/artemisinin_resistance_qa\/en\/."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"682","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2016.05.010","article-title":"Artemisinin Action and Resistance in Plasmodium falciparum","volume":"32","author":"Tilley","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1186\/s40249-017-0286-2","article-title":"Controlling schistosomiasis with praziquantel: How much longer without a viable alternative?","volume":"6","author":"Bergquist","year":"2017","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Poverty"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2008.05.006","article-title":"Will new antischistosomal drugs finally emerge?","volume":"24","author":"Cioli","year":"2008","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1214","DOI":"10.3109\/13880209.2014.970289","article-title":"Evaluation of a method for induction of praziquantel resistance in Schistosoma mansoni","volume":"53","author":"Lotfy","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pharm. Biol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1590\/S0074-02762011000200006","article-title":"Schistosoma mansoni: A method for inducing resistance to praziquantel using infected Biomphalaria glabrata snails","volume":"106","author":"Couto","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1996.55.214","article-title":"Characterization of isolates of Schistosoma mansoni from Egyptian villagers that tolerate high doses of praziquantel","volume":"55","author":"Ismail","year":"1996","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1994.51.83","article-title":"Drug-resistant schistosomiasis: Resistance to praziquantel and oxamniquine induced in Schistosoma mansoni in mice is drug specific","volume":"51","author":"Fallon","year":"1994","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hug."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpddr.2014.09.006","article-title":"Praziquantel sensitivity of Kenyan Schistosoma mansoni isolates and the generation of a laboratory strain with reduced susceptibility to the drug","volume":"4","author":"Mwangi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol. Drugs Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Melman, S.D., Steinauer, M.L., Cunningham, C., Kubatko, L.S., Mwangi, I.N., Wynn, N.B., Mutuku, M.W., Karanja, D.M., Colley, D.G., and Black, C.L. (2009). Reduced susceptibility to praziquantel among naturally occurring Kenyan isolates of Schistosoma mansoni. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 3.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0000504"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"932","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1999.60.932","article-title":"Resistance to praziquantel: Direct evidence from Schistosoma mansoni isolated from Egyptian villagers","volume":"60","author":"Ismail","year":"1999","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"342","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2006.74.342","article-title":"Failure of standard treatment with praziquantel in two returned travelers with Schistosoma haematobium infection","volume":"74","author":"Alonso","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1590\/S0074-02762005000400018","article-title":"Therapeutic failure of praziquantel in the treatment of Schistosoma haematobium infection in Brazilians returning from Africa","volume":"100","author":"Silva","year":"2005","journal-title":"Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1590\/S0036-46652008000600006","article-title":"Schistosomiasis haematobia: Histopathological course determined by cystoscopy in a patient in whom praziquantel treatment failed","volume":"50","author":"Silva","year":"2008","journal-title":"Rev. Inst. Med. Trop. S\u00e3o Paulo"},{"key":"ref_68","first-page":"605","article-title":"Studies on resistance of Schistosoma to praziquantel XIII resistance of Schistosoma japonicum to praziquantel is experimentally induced in laboratory","volume":"23","author":"Liang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Chin. J. Schistosomiasis Control"},{"key":"ref_69","first-page":"611","article-title":"Studies on resistance of Schistosoma to praziquantel XIV experimental comparison of susceptibility to praziquantel between PZQ-resistant isolates and PZQ-susceptible isolates of Schistosoma japonicum in stages of adult worms, miracidia and cercariae","volume":"23","author":"Li","year":"2011","journal-title":"Chin. J. Schistosomiasis Control"},{"key":"ref_70","first-page":"683","article-title":"Studies on resistance of Schistosoma to praziquantel XVII Biological characteristics of praziquantel-resistant isolates of Schistosoma japonicum in mice","volume":"29","author":"Ke","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chin. J. Schistosomiasis Control"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thomas, C.M., and Timson, D.J. (2018). The mechanism of action of praziquantel: Six hypotheses. Curr. Top. Med. Chem.","DOI":"10.2174\/1568026618666181029143214"},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2018, November 03). Seventh Meeting of the Working Group on Monitoring of Neglected Tropical Diseases Drug Effi Cacy. Available online: http:\/\/apps.who.int\/iris\/bitstream\/handle\/10665\/273620\/WHO-CDS-NTD-PCT-2018.06-eng.pdf?ua=1."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"King, C.H. (2017). The evolving schistosomiasis agenda 2007-2017-Why we are moving beyond morbidity control toward elimination of transmission. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005517"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2016.02.015","article-title":"Prophylactic effect of artemether on human schistosomiasis mansoni among Egyptian children: A randomized controlled trial","volume":"158","author":"Elmorshedy","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-015-0983-2","article-title":"Can human schistosomiasis mansoni control be sustained in high-risk transmission foci in Egypt?","volume":"8","author":"Elmorshedy","year":"2015","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trstmh.2008.08.002","article-title":"Efficacy of a combination of praziquantel and artesunate in the treatment of urinary schistosomiasis in Nigeria","volume":"103","author":"Ejezie","year":"2009","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"788","DOI":"10.2471\/BLT.08.053041","article-title":"A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of safety and efficacy of combined praziquantel and artemether treatment for acute schistosomiasis japonica in China","volume":"86","author":"Hou","year":"2008","journal-title":"Bull. World Health Organ."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2003.68.24","article-title":"Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of oral artemether for the prevention of patent Schistosoma haematobium infections","volume":"68","author":"Utzinger","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1320","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(00)02114-0","article-title":"Oral artemether for prevention of Schistosoma mansoni infection: Randomised controlled trial","volume":"355","author":"Utzinger","year":"2000","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Perez del Villar, L., Burguillo, F.J., Lopez-Aban, J., and Muro, A. (2012). Systematic review and meta-analysis of artemisinin based therapies for the treatment and prevention of schistosomiasis. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0045867"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McDowell, M.A., and Rafati, S. (2014). Neglected Tropical Diseases\u2014Middle East and North Africa, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-7091-1613-5"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jare.2012.07.003","article-title":"Epidemiology of Schistosomiasis in Egypt: Travel through Time: Review","volume":"4","author":"Barakat","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Adv. Res."},{"key":"ref_83","first-page":"737","article-title":"Impact of National Schistosomiasis Control Program in Kafr El-Sheikh governorate, Nile Delta, Egypt: An independent evaluation","volume":"73","author":"Barakat","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Egypt. Public Health Assoc."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2016.11.038","article-title":"Mapping of Schistosoma mansoni in the Nile Delta, Egypt: Assessment of the prevalence by the circulating cathodic antigen urine assay","volume":"167","author":"Haggag","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_85","unstructured":"Barakat, R., and Elmorshedy, H. Annual report of the project entitled: \u201cEstablishment and monitoring of cohort school children in Kafer El-Sheikh Governorate, Egypt, in preparation for schistosomiasis vaccine candidate testing when appropriate\u201d. Vaccine Development Project (SVDP); Funded by USAID& Egyptian Ministry of Health and Population (EMHP), 1996-2001, Unpublished work."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"659","DOI":"10.1097\/QCO.0b013e328318978f","article-title":"Praziquantel: Mechanisms of action, resistance and new derivatives for schistosomiasis","volume":"21","author":"Doenhoff","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2016.01.004","article-title":"Schistosomiasis elimination by 2020 or 2030?","volume":"46","author":"Fenwick","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Coulibaly, J.T., N\u2019Gbesso, Y.K., Knopp, S., N\u2019Guessan, N.A., Silue, K.D., van Dam, G.J., N\u2019Goran, E.K., and Utzinger, J. (2013). Accuracy of urine circulating cathodic antigen test for the diagnosis of Schistosoma mansoni in preschool-aged children before and after treatment. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002109"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qin, Z.Q., Jing, X., Feng, T., Lv, S., Qian, Y., Zhang, L., Li, Y.L., Chao, L.V., Bergquist, R., Li, S.Z., and Zhou, X.N. (2018). Field evaluation of a loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) platform for the detection of Schistosoma japonicum infection in Oncomelania hupensis snails. Trop. Med. Infect. Dis.","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed3040124"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2014.09.017","article-title":"Surveillance and response: Tools and approaches for the elimination stage of neglected tropical diseases","volume":"141","author":"Bergquist","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1355","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182018000240","article-title":"Diagnosis of schistosomiasis mansoni: An evaluation of existing methods and research towards single worm pair detection","volume":"145","author":"Ogongo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1841","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182014000626","article-title":"Tools for diagnosis, monitoring and screening of Schistosoma infections utilizing lateral-flow based assays and upconverting phosphor labels","volume":"141","author":"Corstjens","year":"2014","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.12-0741","article-title":"Good things are worth waiting for","volume":"88","author":"Bergquist","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1186\/s40249-017-0275-5","article-title":"Schistosomiasis is more prevalent than previously thought: What does it mean for public health goals, policies, strategies, guidelines and intervention programs?","volume":"6","author":"Colley","year":"2017","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Poverty"}],"container-title":["Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2414-6366\/3\/4\/125\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:34:54Z","timestamp":1760196894000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2414-6366\/3\/4\/125"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,19]]},"references-count":94,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,12]]}},"alternative-id":["tropicalmed3040125"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/tropicalmed3040125","relation":{},"ISSN":["2414-6366"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2414-6366","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,19]]}}}