{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T05:15:02Z","timestamp":1787030102471,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":122,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,2]],"date-time":"2020-06-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1591056000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["TropicalMed"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) is a zoonotic phlebovirus of the Phenuiviridae family with great opportunity for emergence in previously unaffected regions, despite its current geographical limits. Outbreaks of RVFV often infect humans or domesticated animals, such as livestock, concurrently and occur sporadically, ranging from localized outbreaks in villages to multi-country events that spread rapidly. The true burden of Rift Valley fever (RVF) is not well defined due to underreporting, misdiagnosis caused by the broad spectrum of disease presentation, and minimal access for rapid and accurate laboratory confirmation. Severe symptoms may include hemorrhagic fever, loss of vision, psychological impairment or disturbances, and organ failure. Those living in endemic areas and travelers should be aware of the potential for exposure to ongoing outbreaks or interepidemic transmission, and engage in behaviors to minimize exposure risks, as vaccinations in humans are currently unavailable and animal vaccinations are not used routinely or ubiquitously. The lack of vaccines approved for use in humans is concerning, as RVFV has proven to be highly pathogenic in na\u00efve populations, causing severe disease in a large percent of confirmed cases, which could have considerable impact on human health.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed5020089","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,2]],"date-time":"2020-06-02T09:19:27Z","timestamp":1591089567000},"page":"89","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["Rift Valley Fever: Important Considerations for Risk Mitigation and Future Outbreaks"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"5","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2719-1973","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elysse N.","family":"Grossi-Soyster","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Division of Infectious Disease, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"A. Desiree","family":"LaBeaud","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Division of Infectious Disease, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1002\/path.1700340418","article-title":"Enzootic hepatitis or Rift Valley fever: An undescribed virus disease of sheep, cattle, and man from East Africa","volume":"34","author":"Daubney","year":"1931","journal-title":"J. Pathol. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1016\/S0923-2516(06)80134-2","article-title":"Rift Valley fever epizootic in the central highlands of Madagascar","volume":"143","author":"Morvan","year":"1992","journal-title":"Res. Virol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.19182\/remvt.8935","article-title":"Rift Valley fever in Madagascar in 1991. Sero-epidemiological studies in cattle","volume":"45","author":"Morvan","year":"1992","journal-title":"Rev. Elev. Med. Vet. Pays Trop."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1422","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(05)74068-X","article-title":"More deaths from Rift Valley fever in Saudi Arabia and Yemen","volume":"356","author":"Ahmad","year":"2000","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2000). Update: Outbreak of Rift Valley fever\u2014Saudi Arabia, August\u2013November 2000. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep., 49, 982\u2013985."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2000). Outbreak of Rift Valley fever\u2014Saudi Arabia, August\u2013October, 2000. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep., 49, 905\u2013908."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2010.83s2a02","article-title":"The historical and recent impact of Rift Valley fever in Africa","volume":"83","author":"Davies","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268800049633","article-title":"Patterns of Rift Valley fever activity in Zambia","volume":"108","author":"Davies","year":"1992","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2010.09-0289","article-title":"Prediction, assessment of the Rift Valley fever activity in East and Southern Africa 2006-2008 and possible vector control strategies","volume":"83","author":"Anyamba","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2010.09-0288","article-title":"An investigation of a major outbreak of Rift Valley fever in Kenya: 2006\u20132007","volume":"83","author":"Nguku","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.7196\/SAMJ.4544","article-title":"Outbreak of Rift Valley fever affecting veterinarians and farmers in South Africa, 2008","volume":"101","author":"Archer","year":"2011","journal-title":"S. Afr. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1894","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1710.110397","article-title":"Unexpected Rift Valley fever outbreak, northern Mauritania","volume":"17","author":"Baba","year":"2011","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"437","article-title":"An epidemic of Rift Valley fever in Egypt. 1. Diagnosis of Rift Valley fever in man","volume":"57","author":"Imam","year":"1979","journal-title":"Bull. World Health Organ."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"441","article-title":"An epidemic of Rift Valley fever in Egypt. 2. Isolation of the virus from animals","volume":"57","author":"Imam","year":"1979","journal-title":"Bull. World Health Organ."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0802.010023","article-title":"An outbreak of Rift Valley fever in Northeastern Kenya, 1997\u20131998","volume":"8","author":"Woods","year":"2002","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"753","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2010.0031","article-title":"Detection, isolation, and genetic characterization of Rift Valley fever virus from Anopheles (Anopheles) coustani, Anopheles (Anopheles) squamosus, and Culex (Culex) antennatus of the Haute Matsiatra region, Madagascar","volume":"11","author":"Ratovonjato","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"522","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.71.5.522","article-title":"Identification of potential vectors of and detection of antibodies against Rift Valley fever virus in livestock during interepizootic periods","volume":"71","author":"Rostal","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2010.09-0319","article-title":"Rift Valley fever virus epidemic in Kenya, 2006\/2007: The entomologic investigations","volume":"83","author":"Sang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.2987\/5645.1","article-title":"Vector competence of Kenyan Culex zombaensis and Culex quinquefasciatus mosquitoes for Rift Valley fever virus","volume":"23","author":"Turell","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Am. Mosq. Control Assoc."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022172400047252","article-title":"Observations on the epidemiology of Rift Valley fever in Kenya","volume":"75","author":"Davies","year":"1975","journal-title":"J. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1261","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268807009806","article-title":"Prevalence of antibodies against Rift Valley fever virus in Kenyan wildlife","volume":"136","author":"Evans","year":"2008","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-48.2.241","article-title":"The role of wild mammals in the maintenance of Rift Valley fever virus","volume":"48","author":"Olive","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Wildl. Dis."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sindato, C., Pfeiffer, D.U., Karimuribo, E.D., Mboera, L.E., Rweyemamu, M.M., and Paweska, J.T. (2015). A Spatial Analysis of Rift Valley Fever Virus Seropositivity in Domestic Ruminants in Tanzania. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0131873"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2011.10-0187","article-title":"Rift Valley fever virus infection in African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) herds in rural South Africa: Evidence of interepidemic transmission","volume":"84","author":"LaBeaud","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.20506\/rst.23.2.1500","article-title":"Rift Valley fever","volume":"23","author":"Gerdes","year":"2004","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Tech."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"460","article-title":"Effects of Irrigation and Rainfall on the Population Dynamics of Rift Valley Fever and Other Arbovirus Mosquito Vectors in the Epidemic-Prone Tana River County, Kenya","volume":"54","author":"Sang","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"955","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0806490106","article-title":"Prediction of a Rift Valley fever outbreak","volume":"106","author":"Anyamba","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-072X-5-60","article-title":"Developing global climate anomalies suggest potential disease risks for 2006\u20132007","volume":"5","author":"Anyamba","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Health Geogr."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anyamba, A., Linthicum, K.J., Small, J.L., Collins, K.M., Tucker, C.J., Pak, E.W., Britch, S.C., Eastman, J.R., Pinzon, J.E., and Russell, K.L. (2012). Climate teleconnections and recent patterns of human and animal disease outbreaks. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0001465"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1590\/S0102-311X2001000700022","article-title":"Climate-disease connections: Rift Valley Fever in Kenya","volume":"17","author":"Anyamba","year":"2001","journal-title":"Cad. Saude Publica"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anyamba, A., Small, J.L., Britch, S.C., Tucker, C.J., Pak, E.W., Reynolds, C.A., Crutchfield, J., and Linthicum, K.J. (2014). Recent weather extremes and impacts on agricultural production and vector-borne disease outbreak patterns. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0092538"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"875","DOI":"10.1099\/jgv.0.000765","article-title":"Rift Valley fever virus: Strategies for maintenance, survival and vertical transmission in mosquitoes","volume":"98","author":"Lumley","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022172400062434","article-title":"Rift Valley fever virus (family Bunyaviridae, genus Phlebovirus). Isolations from Diptera collected during an inter-epizootic period in Kenya","volume":"95","author":"Linthicum","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) (2019, February 12). Rift Valley Fever (RVF). Available online: http:\/\/www.oie.int\/animal-health-in-the-world\/animal-diseases\/rift-valley-fever\/."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2012.1160","article-title":"Vertical transmission of Rift Valley fever virus without detectable maternal viremia","volume":"13","author":"Antonis","year":"2013","journal-title":"Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oymans, J., Wichgers Schreur, P.J., van Keulen, L., Kant, J., and Kortekaas, J. (2020). Rift Valley fever virus targets the maternal-foetal interface in ovine and human placentas. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0007898"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.14-0575","article-title":"Elevated antibodies against Rift Valley fever virus among humans with exposure to ruminants in Saudi Arabia","volume":"92","author":"Memish","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De St Maurice, A.N.L., Purpura, L., Ervin, E., Tumusiime, A., Balinandi, S., Kyondo, J., Mulei, S., Tusiime, P., Manning, C., and Rollin, P.E. (2018). Rift Valley fever: A survey of knowledge, attitudes, and practice of slaughterhouse workers and community members in Kabale District, Uganda. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0006175"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ng\u2019ang\u2019a, C.M., Bukachi, S.A., and Bett, B.K. (2016). Lay perceptions of risk factors for Rift Valley fever in a pastoral community in northeastern Kenya. BMC Public Health, 16.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-016-2707-8"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1420","DOI":"10.1111\/tmi.12385","article-title":"Risk factors associated with human Rift Valley fever infection: Systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"19","author":"Nicholas","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trop. Med. Int. Health"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cook, E.A.J., Grossi-Soyster, E.N., de Glanville, W.A., Thomas, L.F., Kariuki, S., Bronsvoort, B.M.C., Wamae, C.N., LaBeaud, A.D., and Fevre, E.M. (2017). The sero-epidemiology of Rift Valley fever in people in the Lake Victoria Basin of western Kenya. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005731"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2235","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02341-13","article-title":"Aerosolized rift valley fever virus causes fatal encephalitis in african green monkeys and common marmosets","volume":"88","author":"Hartman","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"e1","article-title":"Potential effects of Rift Valley fever in the United States","volume":"17","author":"Hartley","year":"2011","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e81","DOI":"10.1038\/emi.2013.81","article-title":"The risk of Rift Valley fever virus introduction and establishment in the United States and European Union","volume":"2","author":"Rolin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Emerg. Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19506","DOI":"10.2807\/ese.15.10.19506-en","article-title":"Rift Valley fever\u2014A threat for Europe?","volume":"15","author":"Chevalier","year":"2010","journal-title":"Euro Surveill."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"883","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.234.7.883","article-title":"Rift Valley fever virus","volume":"234","author":"Bird","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/1478-7954-9-1","article-title":"Measuring the burden of arboviral diseases: The spectrum of morbidity and mortality from four prevalent infections","volume":"9","author":"LaBeaud","year":"2011","journal-title":"Popul Health Metr."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2019, February 01). Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers (VHFs), Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/vhf\/."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2007.76.795","article-title":"Spectrum of Rift Valley fever virus transmission in Kenya: Insights from three distinct regions","volume":"76","author":"LaBeaud","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"LaBeaud, A.D., Pfeil, S., Muiruri, S., Dahir, S., Sutherland, L.J., Traylor, Z., Gildengorin, G., Muchiri, E.M., Morrill, J., and Peters, C.J. (2015). Factors associated with severe human Rift Valley fever in Sangailu, Garissa County, Kenya. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003548"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e773","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(16)30240-6","article-title":"Rift Valley fever: Still an emerging infection after 3500 years","volume":"4","author":"Khan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e864","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(16)30176-0","article-title":"Association of Rift Valley fever virus infection with miscarriage in Sudanese women: A cross-sectional study","volume":"4","author":"Baudin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"929","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.21132","article-title":"Case report: Rift Valley Fever with vertical transmission in a pregnant Sudanese woman","volume":"80","author":"Adam","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1016\/S0092-8674(04)00132-1","article-title":"TFIIH transcription factor, a target for the Rift Valley hemorrhagic fever virus","volume":"116","author":"Dubaele","year":"2004","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Hamdan, N.A., Panackal, A.A., Al Bassam, T.H., Alrabea, A., Al Hazmi, M., Al Mazroa, Y., Al Jefri, M., Khan, A.S., and Ksiazek, T.G. (2015). The Risk of Nosocomial Transmission of Rift Valley Fever. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004314"},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"6","article-title":"Epidemiological Study on Rift Valley Fever Virus among Humans in Taiz Governorate (Yemen)","volume":"1","author":"Jamil","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Microbiol. Antimicrob."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cll.2017.01.004","article-title":"Rift Valley Fever","volume":"37","author":"Hartman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Lab. Med."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e58","DOI":"10.1038\/emi.2016.57","article-title":"Has Rift Valley fever virus evolved with increasing severity in human populations in East Africa?","volume":"5","author":"Baba","year":"2016","journal-title":"Emerg. Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2004.09.018","article-title":"Ocular complications of Rift Valley fever outbreak in Saudi Arabia","volume":"112","author":"Abboud","year":"2005","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"National Institute for Communicable Diseases (NICD) (2018). Healthcare Workers Guidelines on Rift Valley Fever (RVF)."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dodd, K.A., McElroy, A.K., Jones, T.L., Zaki, S.R., Nichol, S.T., and Spiropoulou, C.F. (2014). Rift valley Fever virus encephalitis is associated with an ineffective systemic immune response and activated T cell infiltration into the CNS in an immunocompetent mouse model. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002874"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2018.10.021","article-title":"Vascular permeability in the brain is a late pathogenic event during Rift Valley fever virus encephalitis in rats","volume":"526","author":"Walters","year":"2019","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"634","DOI":"10.1111\/bpa.12281","article-title":"Emerging Infections of CNS: Avian Influenza A Virus, Rift Valley Fever Virus and Human Parechovirus","volume":"25","author":"Wiley","year":"2015","journal-title":"Brain Pathol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.1159\/000373924","article-title":"Interplay between the virus and host in Rift Valley fever pathogenesis","volume":"7","author":"Terasaki","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Innate Immun."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2009.08.002","article-title":"Reverse genetics technology for Rift Valley fever virus: Current and future applications for the development of therapeutics and vaccines","volume":"84","author":"Bouloy","year":"2009","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1007\/s00401-015-1511-3","article-title":"Neurotropic virus infections as the cause of immediate and delayed neuropathology","volume":"131","author":"Ludlow","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2016.06.004","article-title":"The role of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 in Rift Valley fever virus infection","volume":"496","author":"Pinkham","year":"2016","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5520","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2015.08.020","article-title":"Rift Valley fever virus: A review of diagnosis and vaccination, and implications for emergence in Europe","volume":"33","author":"Mansfield","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-0934(00)00252-4","article-title":"Single-tube and nested reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction for detection of Rift Valley fever virus in human and animal sera","volume":"91","author":"Sall","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Virol. Methods."},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"World Health Organization (WHO) (2020, May 21). Rift Valley Fever. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/rift-valley-fever2018."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.19.2.225-229.1984","article-title":"Detection of human immunoglobulins G and M antibodies to Rift Valley fever virus by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay","volume":"19","author":"Niklasson","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1001\/virtualmentor.2010.12.3.mhst1-1003","article-title":"Stigmatization complicates infectious disease management","volume":"12","author":"Perry","year":"2010","journal-title":"AMA J. Ethics"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1080\/10510974.2013.851096","article-title":"Infectious Disease Stigmas: Maladaptive in Modern Society","volume":"65","author":"Smith","year":"2014","journal-title":"Commun. Stud."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) (2017). Terrestrial Animal Health Code: Recommendations Applicable to OIE Listed Diseases, OIE. [26th ed.]. Available online: https:\/\/www.oie.int\/standard-setting\/terrestrial-code\/access-online\/."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2010.09-0291","article-title":"An assessment of the regional and national socio-economic impacts of the 2007 Rift Valley fever outbreak in Kenya","volume":"83","author":"Rich","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"938","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1607948114","article-title":"Drivers of Rift Valley fever epidemics in Madagascar","volume":"114","author":"Lancelot","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mutua, E.N., Bukachi, S.A., Bett, B.K., Estambale, B.A., and Nyamongo, I.K. (2017). \u201cWe do not bury dead livestock like human beings\u201d: Community behaviors and risk of Rift Valley fever virus infection in Baringo County, Kenya. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005582"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cleton, N.B., Reusken, C.B., Wagenaar, J.F., van der Vaart, E.E., Reimerink, J., van der Eijk, A.A., and Koopmans, M.P. (2015). Syndromic Approach to Arboviral Diagnostics for Global Travelers as a Basis for Infectious Disease Surveillance. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004073"},{"key":"ref_79","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2010). Rift Valley fever, South Africa-update. Wkly. Epidemiol. Rec., 85, 185\u2013186."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6098","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02641-10","article-title":"Rift valley fever: Recent insights into pathogenesis and prevention","volume":"85","author":"Boshra","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ofw149","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofw149","article-title":"Widespread Rift Valley Fever Emergence in Senegal in 2013\u20132014","volume":"3","author":"Sow","year":"2016","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1800213","DOI":"10.2807\/1560-7917.ES.2019.24.8.1800213","article-title":"Tracking Rift Valley fever: From Mali to Europe and other countries, 2016","volume":"24","author":"Tong","year":"2019","journal-title":"Euro Surveill."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"454","DOI":"10.1007\/s12250-016-3876-4","article-title":"Import of Rift Valley fever to China: A potential new threat?","volume":"31","author":"Fu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Virol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e4","DOI":"10.1038\/emi.2016.136","article-title":"The first imported case of Rift Valley fever in China reveals a genetic reassortment of different viral lineages","volume":"6","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Emerg. Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1226","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(16)30401-7","article-title":"Rift Valley fever virus imported into China from Angola","volume":"16","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Faburay, B., LaBeaud, A.D., McVey, D.S., Wilson, W.C., and Richt, J.A. (2017). Current Status of Rift Valley Fever Vaccine Development. Vaccines (Basel), 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines5030029"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e71","DOI":"10.1038\/emi.2014.71","article-title":"The Rift Valley fever accessory proteins NSm and P78\/NSm-GN are distinct determinants of virus propagation in vertebrate and invertebrate hosts","volume":"3","author":"Kreher","year":"2014","journal-title":"Emerg. Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Weingartl, H.M., Zhang, S., Marszal, P., McGreevy, A., Burton, L., and Wilson, W.C. (2014). Rift Valley fever virus incorporates the 78 kDa glycoprotein into virions matured in mosquito C6\/36 cells. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0087385"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41541-017-0021-9","article-title":"Genetic stability of Rift Valley fever virus MP-12 vaccine during serial passages in culture cells","volume":"2","author":"Lokugamage","year":"2017","journal-title":"NPJ Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2014.04.007","article-title":"Evaluation of lamb and calf responses to Rift Valley fever MP-12 vaccination","volume":"172","author":"Wilson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2271","DOI":"10.1099\/0022-1317-66-10-2271","article-title":"Mutagen-directed attenuation of Rift Valley fever virus as a method for vaccine development","volume":"66 Pt 10","author":"Caplen","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"787","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.20624","article-title":"Adverse response of non-indigenous cattle of European breeds to live attenuated Smithburn Rift Valley fever vaccine","volume":"78","author":"Botros","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Smith, D.R., Johnston, S.C., Piper, A., Botto, M., Donnelly, G., Shamblin, J., Albarino, C.G., Hensley, L.E., Schmaljohn, C., and Nichol, S.T. (2018). Attenuation and efficacy of live-attenuated Rift Valley fever virus vaccine candidates in non-human primates. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0006474"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.2217\/fvl.10.63","article-title":"Towards a safe, effective vaccine for Rift Valley fever virus","volume":"5","author":"Labeaud","year":"2010","journal-title":"Future Virol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"651","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2015.00651","article-title":"MP-12 virus containing the clone 13 deletion in the NSs gene prevents lethal disease when administered after Rift Valley fever virus infection in hamsters","volume":"6","author":"Gowen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2015.05.012","article-title":"Single-cycle replicable Rift Valley fever virus mutants as safe vaccine candidates","volume":"216","author":"Terasaki","year":"2016","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2681","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02501-07","article-title":"Rift valley fever virus lacking the NSs and NSm genes is highly attenuated, confers protective immunity from virulent virus challenge, and allows for differential identification of infected and vaccinated animals","volume":"82","author":"Bird","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ly, H.J., Lokugamage, N., Nishiyama, S., and Ikegami, T. (2017). Risk analysis of inter-species reassortment through a Rift Valley fever phlebovirus MP-12 vaccine strain. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0185194"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17097","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-35472-7","article-title":"A single-cycle replicable Rift Valley fever phlebovirus vaccine carrying a mutated NSs confers full protection from lethal challenge in mice","volume":"8","author":"Terasaki","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2015.12.030","article-title":"Safety and immunogenicity of a mutagenized, live attenuated Rift Valley fever vaccine, MP-12, in a Phase 1 dose escalation and route comparison study in humans","volume":"34","author":"Pittman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2015.11.078","article-title":"Rift Valley fever MP-12 vaccine Phase 2 clinical trial: Safety, immunogenicity, and genetic characterization of virus isolates","volume":"34","author":"Pittman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1709.110506","article-title":"Rift Valley Fever Vaccine Development, Progress and Constraints","volume":"17","author":"Kortekaas","year":"2011","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1080\/14760584.2017.1321482","article-title":"Rift Valley fever vaccines: An overview of the safety and efficacy of the live-attenuated MP-12 vaccine candidate","volume":"16","author":"Ikegami","year":"2017","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_104","unstructured":"(2019, January 04). Call for Proposals 3 (CfPi) Human Vaccine Development against Rift Valley Fever and Chikungunya Diseases [Press Release]. Available online: https:\/\/cepi.net\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/12\/190104_CfP3_Call-text_v2.0-002.pdf."},{"key":"ref_105","unstructured":"Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI) (2019, March 14). Priority Diseases: Rift Valley Fever 2018. Available online: https:\/\/cepi.net\/research_dev\/priority-diseases\/."},{"key":"ref_106","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2019, March 14). 2018 Annual Review of the Blueprint List of Priority Diseases. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/blueprint\/priority-diseases\/en\/."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1084","DOI":"10.1086\/378747","article-title":"Rift Valley fever epidemic in Saudi Arabia: Epidemiological, clinical, and laboratory characteristics","volume":"37","author":"Madani","year":"2003","journal-title":"Clin. Infect Dis."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1038\/nature22402","article-title":"Zika virus evolution and spread in the Americas","volume":"546","author":"Metsky","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_109","first-page":"E4334","article-title":"Spread of Zika virus in the Americas","volume":"114","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_110","unstructured":"International Society for Infectious Diseases (2018, January 19). Rift Valley Fever\u2014South Sudan. Available online: http:\/\/www.promedmail.org\/post\/20180119.5568536."},{"key":"ref_111","unstructured":"International Society for Infectious Diseases (2018, June 20). Rift Valley Fever\u2014Eastern Africa: Uganda. Available online: http:\/\/www.promedmail.org\/post\/20180711.5898523."},{"key":"ref_112","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2018, June 20). Rift Valley Fever\u2014Kenya. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/csr\/don\/18-june-2018-rift-valley-fever-kenya\/en\/."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"713","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2018.2357","article-title":"Human Cases of Rift Valley fever in South Africa, 2018","volume":"18","author":"Patharoo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_114","unstructured":"International Society for Infectious Diseases (2018, July 06). Rift Valley Fever\u2014Eastern Africa: Rwanda. Available online: http:\/\/www.promedmail.org\/post\/20180706.5890383."},{"key":"ref_115","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2019, February 08). Bioterrorism Agents\/Diseases, Available online: https:\/\/emergency.cdc.gov\/agent\/agentlist-category.asp."},{"key":"ref_116","unstructured":"Federal Select Agent Program (2019, February 08). HHS and USDA Select Agents and Toxins, Available online: https:\/\/www.selectagents.gov\/selectagentsandtoxinslist.html."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-018-2884-7","article-title":"Competence of mosquitoes native to the United Kingdom to support replication and transmission of Rift Valley fever virus","volume":"11","author":"Lumley","year":"2018","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1186\/1297-9716-44-58","article-title":"The transmission potential of Rift Valley fever virus among livestock in the Netherlands: A modelling study","volume":"44","author":"Fischer","year":"2013","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_119","unstructured":"Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (2018, October 17). Repellents: Protection against Mosquitoes, Ticks, and Other Arthropods, Available online: https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/insect-repellents."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1097\/QCO.0b013e32833c3da6","article-title":"Advances in Rift Valley fever research: Insights for disease prevention","volume":"23","author":"LaBeaud","year":"2010","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1364","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.15-0383","article-title":"Seroepidemiological Study of Interepidemic Rift Valley Fever Virus Infection Among Persons with Intense Ruminant Exposure in Madagascar and Kenya","volume":"93","author":"Gray","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grossi-Soyster, E.N., Lee, J., King, C.H., and LaBeaud, A.D. (2019). The influence of raw milk exposures on Rift Valley fever virus transmission. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0007258"}],"container-title":["Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2414-6366\/5\/2\/89\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T09:34:53Z","timestamp":1760175293000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2414-6366\/5\/2\/89"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,2]]},"references-count":122,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,6]]}},"alternative-id":["tropicalmed5020089"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/tropicalmed5020089","relation":{},"ISSN":["2414-6366"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2414-6366","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,2]]}}}