{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,3]],"date-time":"2025-11-03T12:38:50Z","timestamp":1762173530316,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":24,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,14]],"date-time":"2021-07-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1626220800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Task Force for Global Health","award":["OPP1053230"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["OPP1053230"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["TropicalMed"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Circulating filarial antigen (Ag) prevalence, measured using rapid point-of-care tests, is the standard indicator used for monitoring and surveillance in the Global Program to Eliminate Lymphatic Filariasis. In 2015, the immunochromatographic test (ICT) was replaced with the filariasis test strip (FTS), which has higher reported sensitivity. Despite differences in sensitivity, no changes in recommended surveillance targets were made when the FTS was introduced. In 2016, we conducted lymphatic filariasis surveys in American Samoa using FTS, which found higher Ag prevalence than previous surveys that used ICT. To determine whether the increase was real, we assessed the concordance between FTS and ICT results by paired testing of heparinised blood from 179 individuals (63% FTS-positive). ICT had 93.8% sensitivity and 100% specificity for identifying FTS-positive persons, and sensitivity was not associated with age, gender, or presence of microfilariae. Based on these findings, if ICT had been used in the 2016 surveys, the results and interpretation would have been similar to those reported using FTS. American Samoa would have failed Transmission Assessment Survey (TAS) of Grade 1 and 2 children with either test, and community prevalence would not have been significantly different (4.1%, 95% CI, 3.3\u20134.9% with FTS vs. predicted 3.8%, 95%, CI: 3.1\u20134.6% with ICT).<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed6030132","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,14]],"date-time":"2021-07-14T21:56:51Z","timestamp":1626299811000},"page":"132","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Comparison of Immunochromatographic Test (ICT) and Filariasis Test Strip (FTS) for Detecting Lymphatic Filariasis Antigen in American Samoa, 2016"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"6","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5453-070X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Meru","family":"Sheel","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"National Centre for Epidemiology and Health, Research School of Population Health, ANU College of Health and Medicine, The Australian National University, Acton 2601, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8288-4169","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Colleen L.","family":"Lau","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, School of Public Health, University of Queensland, Brisbane 4006, Australia"},{"name":"Research School of Population Health, ANU College of Health and Medicine, The Australian National University, Acton 2601, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sarah","family":"Sheridan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Centre for Immunisation Research and Surveillance, Westmead 2145, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Saipale","family":"Fuimaono","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"American Samoa Department of Health, Pago Pago, AS 96799, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5215-3901","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Patricia M.","family":"Graves","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Public Health, Medical and Veterinary Sciences, James Cook University, Cairns 4870, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"WHO (2021, July 14). Lymphatic Filariasis. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/lymphatic-filariasis."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"WHO (2020). Global programme to eliminate lymphatic filariasis: Progress report, 2019. Wkly. Epidemiol. Rec., 43, 509\u2013524."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"WHO WPRO (2006). The PacELF Way: Towards the Elimination of Lymphatic Filariasis from the Pacific, 1999\u20132005, WHO Western Pacific Region."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S48","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2010.08.021","article-title":"Improving community participation to eliminate lymphatic filariasis in American Samoa","volume":"120","author":"King","year":"2011","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1186\/s41182-017-0063-8","article-title":"Prevalence and risk factors associated with lymphatic filariasis in American Samoa after mass drug administration","volume":"45","author":"Coutts","year":"2017","journal-title":"Trop. Med. Health"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Won, K.Y., Robinson, K., Hamlin, K.L., Tufa, J., Seespesara, M., Wiegand, R.E., Gass, K., Kubofcik, J., Nutman, T.B., and Lammie, P.J. (2018). Comparison of antigen and antibody responses in repeat lymphatic filariasis transmission assessment surveys in American Samoa. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0006347"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"WHO (2011). Global Programme to Eliminate Lymphatic Filariasis. Monitoring and Epidemiological Assessment of Mass Drug Administration, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lau, C.L., Won, K.Y., Becker, L., Soares Magalhaes, R.J., Fuimaono, S., Melrose, W., Lammie, P.J., and Graves, P.M. (2014). Seroprevalence and spatial epidemiology of Lymphatic Filariasis in American Samoa after successful mass drug administration. Plos Neglect. Trop. D, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003297"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lau, C.L., Sheridan, S., Ryan, S., Roineau, M., Andreosso, A., Fuimaono, S., Tufa, J., and Graves, P.M. (2017). Detecting and confirming residual hotspots of lymphatic filariasis transmission in American Samoa 8 years after stopping mass drug administration. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005914"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-020-3996-4","article-title":"Demographic, socioeconomic and disease knowledge factors, but not population mobility, associated with lymphatic filariasis infection in adult workers in American Samoa in 2014","volume":"13","author":"Graves","year":"2020","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sheel, M., Sheridan, S., Gass, K., Won, K., Fuimaono, S., Kirk, M., Gonzales, A., Hedtke, S.M., Graves, P.M., and Lau, C.L. (2018). Identifying residual transmission of lymphatic filariasis after mass drug administration: Comparing school-based versus community-based surveillance\u2014American Samoa, 2016. PLoS Negl Trop Dis, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0006583"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/156.2.350","article-title":"A monoclonal antibody-based enzyme immunoassay for detecting parasite antigenemia in bancroftian filariasis","volume":"156","author":"Weil","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"403","article-title":"A highly specific and sensitive monoclonal antibody-based ELISA for the detection of circulating antigen in bancroftian filariasis","volume":"41","author":"More","year":"1990","journal-title":"Trop. Med. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molbiopara.2020.111317","article-title":"Characterization of glycan determinants that mediate recognition of the major Wuchereria bancrofti circulating antigen by diagnostic antibodies","volume":"240","author":"Hertz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol. Biochem. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Masson, J., Douglass, J., Roineau, M., Aye, K.S., Warner, J., and Graves, P.M. (2017). Relative Performance and Predictive Values of Plasma and Dried Blood Spots with Filter Paper Sampling Techniques and Dilutions of the Lymphatic Filariasis Og4C3 Antigen ELISA for Samples from Myanmar. Trop. Med. Infect. Dis., 2.","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed2020007"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-4758(97)01130-7","article-title":"The ICT Filariasis Test: A rapid-format antigen test for diagnosis of bancroftian filariasis","volume":"13","author":"Weil","year":"1997","journal-title":"Parasitol Today"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gass, K., Beau de Rochars, M.V., Boakye, D., Bradley, M., Fischer, P.U., Gyapong, J., Itoh, M., Ituaso-Conway, N., Joseph, H., and Kyelem, D. (2012). A multicenter evaluation of diagnostic tools to define endpoints for programs to eliminate bancroftian filariasis. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0001479"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.13-0089","article-title":"Laboratory and field evaluation of a new rapid test for detecting Wuchereria bancrofti antigen in human blood","volume":"89","author":"Weil","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"WHO (2016). Strengthening the Assessment of Lymphatic Filariasis Transmission and Documenting the Achievement of Elimination. Lymphatic Filariasis, Proceedings of the Meeting of the Neglected Tropical Diseases Strategic and Technical Advisory Group\u2019s Monitoring and Evaluation Subgroup on Disease Specific Indicators, Geneva, Switzerland, 27\u201329 August 2014, WHO."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-015-0979-y","article-title":"A comparison of two tests for filarial antigenemia in areas in Sri Lanka and Indonesia with low-level persistence of lymphatic filariasis following mass drug administration","volume":"8","author":"Yahathugoda","year":"2015","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chesnais, C.B., Awaca-Uvon, N.P., Bolay, F.K., Boussinesq, M., Fischer, P.U., Gankpala, L., Meite, A., Missamou, F., Pion, S.D., and Weil, G.J. (2017). A multi-center field study of two point-of-care tests for circulating Wuchereria bancrofti antigenemia in Africa. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005703"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"(2021, April 01). American Samoa Department of Commerce Statistical Division. Available online: http:\/\/doc.as\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/06\/2014-Statistical-Yearbook.pdf."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Umemneku Chikere, C.M., Wilson, K.J., Allen, A.J., and Vale, L. (2021). Comparative diagnostic accuracy studies with an imperfect reference standard\u2014A comparison of correction methods. BMC Med Res. Methodol., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12874-021-01255-4"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gounoue-Kamkumo, R., Nana-Djeunga, H.C., Bopda, J., Akame, J., Tarini, A., and Kamgno, J. (2015). Loss of sensitivity of immunochromatographic test (ICT) for lymphatic filariasis diagnosis in low prevalence settings: Consequence in the monitoring and evaluation procedures. BMC Infect. Dis., 15.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-015-1317-x"}],"container-title":["Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2414-6366\/6\/3\/132\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:30:39Z","timestamp":1760164239000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2414-6366\/6\/3\/132"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,14]]},"references-count":24,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9]]}},"alternative-id":["tropicalmed6030132"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/tropicalmed6030132","relation":{},"ISSN":["2414-6366"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2414-6366"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,14]]}}}