{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]],"date-time":"2026-08-21T12:44:09Z","timestamp":1787316249460,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":130,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,14]],"date-time":"2022-11-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1668384000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["TropicalMed"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Canine leptospirosis is an important zoonotic disease in many countries. This review examines potential drivers for increased diagnoses of canine leptospirosis in the United States and Canada, using the epidemiologic triad of agent-environment-host as a template. Leptospira spp. are classified into more than 250 serovars, but in many laboratories only 6 are routinely tested for in serologic agglutination tests of canine sera. Leptospiral infections in dogs may potentially go undetected with unemployed or currently employed diagnostic methods. Disease transmission from infected reservoir hosts usually occurs via urine-contaminated environmental sources such as water. Direct contact between infected and susceptible individuals, environmental factors such as climate changes in temperature and\/or rainfall, and increasing number and urbanization of reservoir hosts may greatly increase dog exposure risks. A dog\u2019s lifestyle may influence exposure risk to leptospirosis, but vaccination based on proper identification of circulating serogroups dramatically reduces post-exposure infections. Regrettably, resistance to vaccination by veterinarians and dog owners leaves a large number of dogs at risk for this zoonotic disease.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed7110377","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,15]],"date-time":"2022-11-15T02:31:15Z","timestamp":1668479475000},"page":"377","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["Potential Drivers for the Re-Emergence of Canine Leptospirosis in the United States and Canada"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"7","author":[{"given":"Amanda M.","family":"Smith","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Veterinary Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9028-8153","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jason W.","family":"Stull","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Veterinary Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA"},{"name":"Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, PE CIA 4P3, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"George E.","family":"Moore","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Veterinary Medicine, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1017\/S095026881600203X","article-title":"Effect of temperature, relative humidity and rainfall on dengue fever and leptospirosis infections in Manila, the Philippines","volume":"145","author":"Sumi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Epidemiol. 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