{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T13:40:47Z","timestamp":1791380447664,"version":"4.3.3"},"reference-count":29,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,13]],"date-time":"2023-01-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1673568000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Ministry of Health, Community Development, Gender, Elderly and Children, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania","award":["MOHCDGEC\/HQ\/R.8e\/Vol.1\/215"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MOHCDGEC\/HQ\/R.8e\/Vol.1\/215"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["TropicalMed"],"abstract":"<jats:p>We determined the prevalence and reported risk factors associated with sexually transmitted and reproductive tract infections (STI\/RTIs) among patients who presented with genital symptoms in STI\/outpatient department (OPD) clinics in two regional referral hospitals and six health centres in six regions in Tanzania. Methods: The patients were consecutively recruited, and the data collection was conducted in eight health care facilities from 2014 to 2016. Genital swabs were collected for the detection of the aetiological pathogens of STI\/RTIs. Results: A total of 1243 participants were recruited in the study; the majority (1073, 86%) were women. The overall median age was 27.8. The prevalence of Neisseria gonorrhoeae was 25.7% (319\/1243), with proportions of 50.9 and 21.5% for men and women, respectively, of Chlamydia trachomatis 12.9% (160\/1241) and Mycoplasma genitalium 4.7% (53\/1134). Unmarried men were more often likely to be infected with gonococcal infections as compared to their women counterparts (57.9 vs. 24.1%) p &lt; 0.001. The majority presented with genital discharge syndrome (GDS) 93.6% (1163\/1243), genital ulcer disease (GUD) 13.0% (162\/1243) and GDS + GUD 9.6% (119\/1243). GDS was more common in the health centres, 96.1% (1195\/1243), vs. the regional referral hospitals, 92.2% (1146\/1243) (p = 0.01), but those reported to the regional referral hospitals were more likely to be infected with N. gonorrhoeae (OR = 2.5) and C. trachomatis (OR = 2.1) than those from the health centres (p &lt; 0.001). The prevalence of bacterial vaginosis (BV) and vaginal candidiasis (VC) was 24.1 and 10.4%, respectively. Interestingly, unmarried and BV-positive women were less likely to be infected with VC (p = 0.03), though VC was strongly inversely associated with an N. gonorrhoeae infection (p &lt; 0.001). High proportions of N. gonorrhoeae (51.1%) and C. trachomatis (23.3%) were found in the Dodoma and Dar es Salaam regions, respectively. M. genitalium (7.6%) was found to be the highest in Mwanza. Conclusion: We reported a high prevalence of STI\/RTIs. The findings suggest that these infections are common and prevalent in STI\/OPD clinics in six regions of Tanzania. We recommend surveillance to be conducted regularly to elucidate the true burden of emerging and classical STI\/RTIs by employing modern and advanced laboratory techniques for the detection and monitoring of STI\/RTIs in low- and high-risk populations, including the community settings.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed8010062","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,16]],"date-time":"2023-01-16T04:31:32Z","timestamp":1673843492000},"page":"62","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["High Prevalence of Sexually Transmitted and Reproductive Tract Infections (STI\/RTIs) among Patients Attending STI\/Outpatient Department Clinics in Tanzania"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Said","family":"Aboud","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of Microbiology and Immunology, Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences (MUHAS), Dar es Salaam P.O. Box 65001, Tanzania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Simon N.","family":"Buhalata","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of Microbiology and Immunology, Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences (MUHAS), Dar es Salaam P.O. Box 65001, Tanzania"},{"name":"National Institute for Medical Research, Mwanza Research Centre, Mwanza P.O. Box 1462, Tanzania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8954-2794","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Onduru G.","family":"Onduru","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute for Medical Research, Mwanza Research Centre, Mwanza P.O. Box 1462, Tanzania"},{"name":"The Africa Center of Excellence in Public Health and Herbal Medicine (ACEPHEM), Kamuzu University of Health Sciences, Blantyre P.O. Box 360, Malawi"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2126-9039","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mercy G.","family":"Chiduo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute for Medical Research, Tanga Research Centre, Tanga P.O. Box 5004, Tanzania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gideon P.","family":"Kwesigabo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of Microbiology and Immunology, Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences (MUHAS), Dar es Salaam P.O. Box 65001, Tanzania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stephen E.","family":"Mshana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Microbiology, Catholic University of Health and Allied Sciences (CUHAS), Mwanza P.O. Box 1370, Tanzania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alphaxard M.","family":"Manjurano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute for Medical Research, Mwanza Research Centre, Mwanza P.O. Box 1462, Tanzania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mansuet M.","family":"Temu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute for Medical Research, Mwanza Research Centre, Mwanza P.O. Box 1462, Tanzania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Coleman","family":"Kishamawe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute for Medical Research, Mwanza Research Centre, Mwanza P.O. Box 1462, Tanzania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"John M.","family":"Changalucha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute for Medical Research, Mwanza Research Centre, Mwanza P.O. Box 1462, Tanzania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Newman, L., Rowley, J., Hoorn, S.V., Wijesooriya, N.S., Unemo, M., Low, N., Stevens, G., Gottlieb, S., Kiarie, J., and Temmerman, M. (2015). Global estimates of the prevalence and incidence of four curable sexually transmitted infections in 2012 based on systemic review and global reporting. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0143304"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1136\/sextrans-2014-051683","article-title":"The prevalence of, and factors associated with, paying for sex among men resident in Britain: Findings from the third National Survey of Sexual Attitudes and Lifestyles (Natsal-3)","volume":"91","author":"Jones","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sex. Transm. Infect."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2022, October 19). Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance 2019, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/std\/statistics\/2019\/std-surveillance-2019.pdf."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"1","article-title":"Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015","volume":"64","author":"Workowski","year":"2015","journal-title":"MMWR. Recomm. Rep."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1186\/1742-4755-6-4","article-title":"Prevalence of sexually transmitted infections among pregnant women with known HIV status in northern Tanzania","volume":"6","author":"Msuya","year":"2009","journal-title":"Reprod. Health"},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"48","article-title":"Genital tract infections in women attending sexually transmitted infection clinics in Mwanza, north-west Tanzania","volume":"28","author":"Buhalata","year":"2013","journal-title":"S. Afr. J. Epidemiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"255","article-title":"Prevalence of Mycoplasma genitalium in different population groups: Systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"94","author":"Baumann","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McGowin, C.L., and Anderson-Smits, C. (2011). Mycoplasma genitalium: An emerging cause of sexually transmitted disease in women. PLoS Pathog., 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1001324"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e003947","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2013-003947","article-title":"A cross-sectional study of Mycoplasma genitalium infection and correlates in women undergoing population-based screening or clinic-based testing for Chlamydia infection in London","volume":"4","author":"Svenstrup","year":"2014","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1002\/jcp.26952","article-title":"Investigation on silent bacterial infections in specimens from pregnant women affected by spontaneous miscarriage","volume":"234","author":"Contini","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Cell Physiol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1136\/sti.2002.004077","article-title":"Sexually transmitted infections in pregnancy: Prevalence, impact on pregnancy outcomes, and approach to treatment in developing countries","volume":"81","author":"Mullick","year":"2005","journal-title":"Sex. Transm. Infect."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Francis, S.C., Ao, T.T., Vanobberghen, F.M., Chilongani, J., Hashim, R., Andreasen, A., Watson-Jones, D., Changalucha, J., Kapiga, S., and Hayes, R.J. (2014). Epidemiology of curable sexually transmitted infections among women at increased risk for HIV in northwestern Tanzania: Inadequacy of syndromic management. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0101221"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.4103\/0253-7184.102121","article-title":"Comparison of syndromic diagnosis of reproductive tract infections with laboratory diagnosis among rural married women in Medak district, Andhra Pradesh","volume":"33","author":"Prabha","year":"2012","journal-title":"Indian J. Sex. Transm. Dis. AIDS"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1136\/sti.2008.035543","article-title":"Bacterial vaginosis in female facility workers in north-western Tanzania: Prevalence and risk factors","volume":"85","author":"Baisley","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sex. Transm. Infect."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2334-12-113","article-title":"The prevalence of Chlamydia trachomatis infection in Australia: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"12","author":"Lewis","year":"2012","journal-title":"BMC Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1136\/sextrans-2014-051952","article-title":"High prevalence of sexually-transmitted infections in pregnant adolescent girls in Tanzania: A multi-community cross-sectional study","volume":"91","author":"Hokororo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sex Transm. Infect."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cit752","article-title":"High prevalence of antibiotic-resistant Mycoplasma genitalium in nongonococcal urethritis: The need for routine testing and the inadequacy of current treatment options","volume":"58","author":"Pond","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Packel, L., Keller, A., Dow, W.H., De Walque, D., Nathan, R., and Mtenga, S. (2012). Evolving strategies, opportunistic implementation: HIV risk reduction in tanzania in the context of an incentive-based HIV prevention intervention. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0044058"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0122400","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0122400","article-title":"Prevalence and factors associated with sexually transmitted infections among HIV positive women opting for intrauterine contraception","volume":"10","author":"Kakaire","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Ministry of Health and Social Welfare (2022, October 19). National guidelines for management of sexually transmitted and reproductive infections. First Edition. Available online: https:\/\/www.jica.go.jp\/project\/tanzania\/001\/materials\/pdf\/sti_01.pdf."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9343(83)91112-9","article-title":"Nonspecific vaginitis: Diagnostic criteria and microbial and epidemiologic associations","volume":"74","author":"Amsel","year":"1983","journal-title":"Am. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.29.2.297-301.1991","article-title":"Reliability of diagnosing bacterial vaginosis is improved by a standardized method of gram stain interpretation","volume":"29","author":"Nugent","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.312.7026.277","article-title":"Asymptomatic gonorrhoea and chlamydial infection in rural","volume":"312","author":"Grosskurth","year":"1996","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1186\/1742-6405-11-31","article-title":"High prevalence and incidence of sexually transmitted infections among women living in Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa","volume":"11","author":"Naidoo","year":"2014","journal-title":"AIDS Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"i69","DOI":"10.1136\/sti.78.suppl_1.i69","article-title":"Role of core and bridging groups in the transmission dynamics of HIV and STIs in Cotonou, Benin, West Africa","volume":"78","author":"Lowndes","year":"2002","journal-title":"Sex. Transm. Infect."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1097\/01.aids.0000210616.90954.47","article-title":"Decline in sexually transmitted infection prevalence and HIV incidence in female bar workers attending prevention and care services in Mbeya Region, Tanzania","volume":"20","author":"Riedner","year":"2006","journal-title":"Aids"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"713","DOI":"10.1097\/OLQ.0000000000000204","article-title":"Etiology and antimicrobial susceptibility of pathogens responsible for urethral discharge among men in Harare, Zimbabwe","volume":"41","author":"Takuva","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sex. Transm. Dis."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jir733","article-title":"Prevalence and correlates of Mycoplasma genitalium infection among female sex workers in Kampala, Uganda","volume":"205","author":"Vandepitte","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1097\/OLQ.0b013e318206c288","article-title":"The incidence and correlates of symptomatic and asymptomatic Chamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae infections in selected populations in five countries","volume":"38","author":"Detels","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sex Transm. Dis."}],"container-title":["Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2414-6366\/8\/1\/62\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:05:30Z","timestamp":1760119530000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2414-6366\/8\/1\/62"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,13]]},"references-count":29,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1]]}},"alternative-id":["tropicalmed8010062"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/tropicalmed8010062","relation":{},"ISSN":["2414-6366"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2414-6366","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,13]]}}}