{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,3]],"date-time":"2026-03-03T00:01:23Z","timestamp":1772496083371,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,22]],"date-time":"2023-06-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1687392000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"World Health Organization","award":["2022\/1234594-0"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022\/1234594-0"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["TropicalMed"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Lymphatic filariasis (LF), also commonly known as elephantiasis, is a neglected tropical disease (NTD) caused by filarial parasites. The disease is transmitted via a bite from infected mosquitoes. The bites of these infected mosquitoes deposit filarial parasites, Wuchereria or Brugia, whose predilection site is the lymphatic system. The damage to the lymph system causes swelling in the legs, arms, and genitalia. A mapping survey conducted between 2003 and 2011 determined LF as being endemic in Zambia in 96 out of 116 districts. Elimination of LF is known to be possible by stopping the spread of the infection through large-scale preventive chemotherapy. Therefore, mass drug administration (MDA) with diethylcarbamazine citrate (DEC) (6 mg\/kg) and Albendazole (400 mg) for Zambia has been conducted and implemented in all endemic districts with five effective rounds. In order to determine whether LF prevalence has been sufficiently reduced to levels less than 2% antigenemia and less than 1% microfilaremia, a pre-transmission assessment survey (pre-TAS) was conducted. Therefore, post-MDA pre-TAS was conducted between 2021 and 2022 in 80 districts to determine the LF prevalence. We conducted a cross-sectional seroprevalence study involving 600 participants in each evaluation unit (EU) or each district. The study sites (sentinel and spot-check sites) were from districts that were the implementation units (IUs) of the LF MDA. These included 80 districts from the 9 provinces. A total of 47,235 people from sentinel and spot-check locations were tested. Of these, valid tests were 47,052, of which 27,762 (59%) were females and 19,290 (41%) were males. The survey revealed in the 79\/80 endemic districts a prevalence of Wb antigens of 0.14% and 0.0% prevalence of microfilariae. All the surveyed districts had an optimum prevalence of less than 2% for antigenaemia, except for Chibombo district. The majority of participants that tested positive for Wuchereria bancrofti (Wb) Antigens (Ag) were those that had 2, 3, and 4 rounds of MDA. Surprisingly, individuals that had 1 round of MDA were not found to have circulating antigens of Wb. The study showed that all the surveyed districts, except for Chibombo, passed pre-TAS. This further implies that there is a need to conduct transmission assessment surveys (TASs) in these districts.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed8070333","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,23]],"date-time":"2023-06-23T02:34:07Z","timestamp":1687487647000},"page":"333","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Lymphatic Filariasis Elimination Status: Wuchereria bancrofti Infections in Human Populations after Five Effective Rounds of Mass Drug Administration in Zambia"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"8","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-4499-1922","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Belem Blamwell","family":"Matapo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Public Health, University of Zambia, Ridgeway Campus, Lusaka P.O. Box 50516, Zambia"},{"name":"World Health Organization, Corner Andrew Mwenya\/Beit Road, Lusaka P.O. Box 32346, Zambia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3193-8750","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Evans Mwila","family":"Mpabalwani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine, University of Zambia, Ridgeway Campus, Lusaka P.O. Box 50516, Zambia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0461-8361","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Patrick","family":"Kaonga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Public Health, University of Zambia, Ridgeway Campus, Lusaka P.O. Box 50516, Zambia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6621-7470","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Martin Chitolongo","family":"Simuunza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zambia, Great East Road Campus, Lusaka P.O. Box 32379, Zambia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nathan","family":"Bakyaita","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"World Health Organization, Corner Andrew Mwenya\/Beit Road, Lusaka P.O. Box 32346, Zambia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Freddie","family":"Masaninga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"World Health Organization, Corner Andrew Mwenya\/Beit Road, Lusaka P.O. Box 32346, Zambia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Namasiku","family":"Siyumbwa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ministry of Health Headquarters Ndeke House, Lusaka P.O. Box 30205, Zambia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2160-5506","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Seter","family":"Siziya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Michael Chilufya Sata School of Medicine, Copperbelt University, Ndola P.O. Box 71191, Zambia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Frank","family":"Shamilimo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ministry of Health Headquarters Ndeke House, Lusaka P.O. Box 30205, Zambia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chilweza","family":"Muzongwe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ministry of Health Headquarters Ndeke House, Lusaka P.O. Box 30205, Zambia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Enala T.","family":"Mwase","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zambia, Great East Road Campus, Lusaka P.O. Box 32379, Zambia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chummy Sikalizyo","family":"Sikasunge","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zambia, Great East Road Campus, Lusaka P.O. Box 32379, Zambia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"628","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-016-1911-9","article-title":"Dynamics of antigenemia and transmission intensity of Wuchereria bancrofti following cessation of mass drug administration in a formerly highly endemic region of Mali","volume":"9","author":"Coulibaly","year":"2016","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-015-1093-x","article-title":"Brugia RapidTM antibody responses in communities of Indonesia in relation to the results of \u201ctransmission assessment surveys\u201d (TAS) for the lymphatic filariasis elimination program","volume":"8","author":"Dewi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1089\/lrb.2013.0021","article-title":"Insights into the pathogenesis of disease in human lymphatic filariasis","volume":"11","author":"Nutman","year":"2013","journal-title":"Lymphat. Res. Biol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2009.11.014","article-title":"Review on global co-transmission of human Plasmodium species and Wuchereria bancrofti by Anopheles mosquitoes","volume":"10","author":"Manguin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Infect. Genet. Evol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2014.08.018","article-title":"Molecular epidemiology, phylogeny and evolution of the filarial nematode Wuchereria bancrofti","volume":"28","author":"Small","year":"2014","journal-title":"Infect. Genet. Evol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.7748\/ns.17.35.45.s55","article-title":"Lymphoedema","volume":"17","author":"Penzer","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nurs. Stand."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Zulfiqar, H., and Malik, A. (2023, April 08). Bancroftian Filariasis, StatPearls, Available online: http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK547682."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022149X00032041","article-title":"A Helminthological Survey in Northern Rhodesia","volume":"21","author":"Buckley","year":"1946","journal-title":"J. Helminthol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-6-299","article-title":"Lymphatic filariasis in Luangwa District, South-East Zambia","volume":"6","author":"Shawa","year":"2013","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.3347\/kjp.2020.58.6.627","article-title":"Risk of Recrudescence of Lymphatic Filariasis after Post-MDA Surveillance in Brugia malayi Endemic Belitung District, Indonesia","volume":"58","author":"Santoso","year":"2020","journal-title":"Korean J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chu, B.K., Deming, M., Biritwum, N.-K., Bougma, W.R., Dorkenoo, A.M., El-Setouhy, M., Fischer, P.U., Gass, K., Gonzalez de Pe\u00f1a, M., and Mercado-Hernandez, L. (2013). Transmission assessment surveys (TAS) to define endpoints for lymphatic filariasis mass drug administration: A multicenter evaluation. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002584"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramaiah, K.D., and Ottesen, E.A. (2014). Progress and impact of 13 years of the global programme to eliminate lymphatic filariasis on reducing the burden of filarial disease. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003319"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0006780","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0006780","article-title":"Towards elimination of lymphatic filariasis in southeastern Madagascar: Successes and challenges for interrupting transmission","volume":"12","author":"Garchitorena","year":"2018","journal-title":"PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"45","article-title":"The national programme to eliminate lymphatic filariasis from Ethiopia","volume":"55","author":"Mengistu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ethiop. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mwase, E.T., Stensgaard, A.-S., Nsakashalo-Senkwe, M., Mubila, L., Mwansa, J., Songolo, P., Shawa, S.T., and Simonsen, P.E. (2014). Mapping the geographical distribution of lymphatic filariasis in Zambia. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002714"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0004172","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004172","article-title":"Shrinking the lymphatic filariasis map of Ethiopia reassessing the population at risk through nationwide mapping","volume":"9","author":"Rebollo","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2000.62.502","article-title":"Evaluation of the whole blood filariasis ICT test for short-term monitoring after antifilarial treatment","volume":"62","author":"Schuetz","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0189306","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0189306","article-title":"The interruption of Onchocerca volvulus and Wuchereria bancrofti transmission by integrated chemotherapy in the Obongi focus, North Western Uganda","volume":"12","author":"Luroni","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"93","article-title":"Wuchereria bancrofti: The staining of the microfilarial sheath in giemsa and haematoxylin for diagnosis","volume":"11","author":"Hira","year":"1977","journal-title":"Med. J. Zamb."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"160","article-title":"Bancroftian filariasis. An autochthonous case in Zambia","volume":"10","author":"Hira","year":"1976","journal-title":"Med. J. Zamb."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S3","DOI":"10.1093\/inthealth\/ihaa061","article-title":"Setting the stage for a Global Programme to Eliminate Lymphatic Filariasis: The first 125 years (1875\u20132000)","volume":"13","author":"Ottesen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. Health"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2125.1992.tb05632.x","article-title":"Diethylcarbamazine in the treatment of patients with onchocerciasis","volume":"34","author":"Awadzi","year":"1992","journal-title":"Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Niles, R.A., Thickstun, C.R., Cox, H., Dilliott, D., Burgert-Brucker, C.R., Harding-Esch, E.M., Clementson, N., Sampson, A., Alexandre, J.S., and Morice Trejos, A.C. (2021). Assessing factors influencing communities\u2019 acceptability of mass drug administration for the elimination of lymphatic filariasis in Guyana. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009596"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Burgert-Brucker, C.R., Zoerhoff, K.L., Headland, M., Shoemaker, E.A., Stelmach, R., Karim, M.J., Batcho, W., Bougouma, C., Bougma, R., and Benjamin Didier, B. (2020). Risk factors associated with failing pre-transmission assessment surveys (pre-TAS) in lymphatic filariasis elimination programs: Results of a multi-country analysis. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0008301"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2023, May 17). Monitoring and Epidemiological Assessment of Mass Drug Administration in the Global Programme to Eliminate Lymphatic Filariasis: A Manual for National Elimination Programmes. Available online: https:\/\/apps.who.int\/iris\/handle\/10665\/44580."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(94)90311-5","article-title":"Tolerance of diethylcarbamazine by microfilaraemic and amicrofilaraemic individuals in an endemic area of Bancroftian filariasis, Recife, Brazil","volume":"88","author":"Dreyer","year":"1994","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1016\/S0035-9203(03)90147-7","article-title":"Age-dependent prevalence of asymptomatic amicrofilaraemic individuals in a Wuchereria bancrofti-endemic region of India","volume":"97","author":"Beuria","year":"2003","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/30.2.394","article-title":"In Wuchereria bancrofti filariasis, asymptomatic microfilaraemia does not progress to amicrofilaraemic lymphatic disease","volume":"30","author":"Dissanayake","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"(2023, April 10). Zambia Census Report 2022. Bing, Available online: https:\/\/www.zamstats.gov.zm\/2022-census\/reports\/."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"(2023, April 21). WHO_CDS_CPE_CEE_2005.50.pdf. Available online: http:\/\/apps.who.int\/iris\/bitstream\/handle\/10665\/69172\/WHO_CDS_CPE_CEE_2005.50.pdf;jsessionid=FB5D7BA754A5BC29C636994F8373B345?sequence=1."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parepi.2017.08.001","article-title":"Significant decline in lymphatic filariasis associated with nationwide scale-up of insecticide-treated nets in Zambia","volume":"2","author":"Mwase","year":"2017","journal-title":"Parasite Epidemiol. Control"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(12)70148-2","article-title":"Malaria and lymphatic filariasis: The case for integrated vector management","volume":"13","author":"Lindsay","year":"2013","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."}],"container-title":["Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2414-6366\/8\/7\/333\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:58:57Z","timestamp":1760126337000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2414-6366\/8\/7\/333"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,22]]},"references-count":32,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,7]]}},"alternative-id":["tropicalmed8070333"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/tropicalmed8070333","relation":{},"ISSN":["2414-6366"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2414-6366","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,22]]}}}