{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,21]],"date-time":"2026-10-21T23:18:22Z","timestamp":1792624702044,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":102,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,6]],"date-time":"2019-03-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1551830400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006310","name":"Medicinska Forskningsr\u00e5det","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2018-02862, 2017-01479,K2015-56x-12266-19-4"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018-02862, 2017-01479,K2015-56x-12266-19-4"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006310","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Noroviruses are the most common etiological agent of acute gastroenteritis worldwide. Despite their high infectivity, a subpopulation of individuals is resistant to infection and disease. This susceptibility is norovirus genotype-dependent and is largely mediated by the presence or absence of human histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs) on gut epithelial surfaces. The synthesis of these HBGAs is mediated by fucosyl- and glycosyltransferases under the genetic control of the FUT2 (secretor), FUT3 (Lewis) and ABO(H) genes. The so-called non-secretors, having an inactivated FUT2 enzyme, do not express blood group antigens and are resistant to several norovirus genotypes, including the predominant GII.4. Significant genotypic and phenotypic diversity of HBGA expression exists between different human populations. Here, we review previous in vivo studies on genetic susceptibility to norovirus infection. These are discussed in relation to population susceptibility, vaccines, norovirus epidemiology and the impact on public health.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v11030226","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,7]],"date-time":"2019-03-07T10:52:22Z","timestamp":1551955942000},"page":"226","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":166,"title":["Genetic Susceptibility to Human Norovirus Infection: An Update"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Johan","family":"Nordgren","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Molecular Virology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Link\u00f6ping University, 58185 Link\u00f6ping, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lennart","family":"Svensson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Molecular Virology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Link\u00f6ping University, 58185 Link\u00f6ping, Sweden"},{"name":"Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institute, 17177 Stockholm, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(14)70767-4","article-title":"Global prevalence of norovirus in cases of gastroenteritis: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"14","author":"Ahmed","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1224","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1408.071114","article-title":"Systematic literature review of role of noroviruses in sporadic gastroenteritis","volume":"14","author":"Patel","year":"2008","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1156","DOI":"10.1097\/INF.0000000000000427","article-title":"Etiology of childhood diarrhea after rotavirus vaccine introduction: A prospective, population-based study in Nicaragua","volume":"33","author":"Bucardo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bucardo, F., Reyes, Y., Svensson, L., and Nordgren, J. (2014). Predominance of norovirus and sapovirus in Nicaragua after implementation of universal rotavirus vaccination. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0098201"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.1007\/s00431-013-1945-3","article-title":"Major reduction of rotavirus, but not norovirus, gastroenteritis in children seen in hospital after the introduction of RotaTeq vaccine into the National Immunization Programme in Finland","volume":"172","author":"Hemming","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1121","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMsa1206589","article-title":"Norovirus and medically attended gastroenteritis in U.S. children","volume":"368","author":"Payne","year":"2013","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1468","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.21237","article-title":"Norwalk virus: How infectious is it?","volume":"80","author":"Teunis","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0505.990502","article-title":"Food-related illness and death in the United States","volume":"5","author":"Mead","year":"1999","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1097\/MOG.0000000000000022","article-title":"Epidemiology of human noroviruses and updates on vaccine development","volume":"30","author":"Ramani","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"422","DOI":"10.1097\/QCO.0000000000000476","article-title":"Human noroviruses: Recent advances in a 50-year history","volume":"31","author":"Atmar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4057","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02077-10","article-title":"Qualitative and quantitative analysis of the binding of GII.4 norovirus variants onto human blood group antigens","volume":"85","author":"Simon","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1601.090633","article-title":"Norovirus gastroenteritis outbreak with a secretor-independent susceptibility pattern, Sweden","volume":"16","author":"Nordgren","year":"2010","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1126\/science.286.5438.287","article-title":"X-ray crystallographic structure of the Norwalk virus capsid","volume":"286","author":"Prasad","year":"1999","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13117","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.77.24.13117-13124.2003","article-title":"Evolution of human calicivirus RNA in vivo: Accumulation of mutations in the protruding P2 domain of the capsid leads to structural changes and possibly a new phenotype","volume":"77","author":"Nilsson","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"554","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.79.1.554-568.2005","article-title":"Evolutionary trace residues in noroviruses: Importance in receptor binding, antigenicity, virion assembly, and strain diversity","volume":"79","author":"Chakravarty","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2008.06.041","article-title":"Elucidation of strain-specific interaction of a GII-4 norovirus with HBGA receptors by site-directed mutagenesis study","volume":"379","author":"Tan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12562","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.77.23.12562-12571.2003","article-title":"Mutations within the P2 domain of norovirus capsid affect binding to human histo-blood group antigens: Evidence for a binding pocket","volume":"77","author":"Tan","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2005.11.015","article-title":"Norovirus classification and proposed strain nomenclature","volume":"346","author":"Zheng","year":"2006","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2059","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-013-1708-5","article-title":"Proposal for a unified norovirus nomenclature and genotyping","volume":"158","author":"Kroneman","year":"2013","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01535-14","article-title":"Advances in laboratory methods for detection and typing of norovirus","volume":"53","author":"Vinje","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00007-18","DOI":"10.1128\/genomeA.00007-18","article-title":"Near-Complete Genome Sequences of Several New Norovirus Genogroup II Genotypes","volume":"6","author":"Chhabra","year":"2018","journal-title":"Genome Announc."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"682","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(04)15641-9","article-title":"Increase in viral gastroenteritis outbreaks in Europe and epidemic spread of new norovirus variant","volume":"363","author":"Lopman","year":"2004","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.44.2.327-333.2006","article-title":"Emergence of a new norovirus genotype II.4 variant associated with global outbreaks of gastroenteritis","volume":"44","author":"Bull","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lindesmith, L.C., Donaldson, E.F., Lobue, A.D., Cannon, J.L., Zheng, D.P., Vinje, J., and Baric, R.S. (2008). Mechanisms of GII.4 norovirus persistence in human populations. PLoS Med., 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.0050031"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM197707142970204","article-title":"Clinical immunity in acute gastroenteritis caused by Norwalk agent","volume":"297","author":"Parrino","year":"1977","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1260","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1908.130472","article-title":"Duration of immunity to norovirus gastroenteritis","volume":"19","author":"Simmons","year":"2013","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a113288","article-title":"Norwalk virus enteric illness acquired by swimming exposure","volume":"115","author":"Koopman","year":"1982","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1038\/nm860","article-title":"Human susceptibility and resistance to Norwalk virus infection","volume":"9","author":"Lindesmith","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1967","DOI":"10.1053\/gast.2002.33661","article-title":"Norwalk virus binds to histo-blood group antigens present on gastroduodenal epithelial cells of secretor individuals","volume":"122","author":"Marionneau","year":"2002","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2720","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00162-07","article-title":"Host genetic resistance to symptomatic norovirus (GGII.4) infections in Denmark","volume":"45","author":"Kindberg","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.2217\/fvl.09.14","article-title":"Genetic basis of host resistance to norovirus infection","volume":"4","author":"Kindberg","year":"2009","journal-title":"Future Virol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1002\/1098-1004(200009)16:3<274::AID-HUMU20>3.0.CO;2-I","article-title":"Two distinct Alu-mediated deletions of the human ABO-secretor (FUT2) locus in Samoan and Bangladeshi populations","volume":"16","author":"Pang","year":"2000","journal-title":"Hum. Mutat."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1386","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jis514","article-title":"Predicting susceptibility to norovirus GII.4 by use of a challenge model involving humans","volume":"206","author":"Frenck","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.20423","article-title":"Norwalk virus infection associates with secretor status genotyped from sera","volume":"77","author":"Hutson","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1335","DOI":"10.1086\/339883","article-title":"Norwalk virus infection and disease is associated with ABO histo-blood group type","volume":"185","author":"Hutson","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2900","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.79.5.2900-2909.2005","article-title":"Cellular and humoral immunity following Snow Mountain virus challenge","volume":"79","author":"Lindesmith","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/170.1.34","article-title":"Norwalk virus infection of volunteers: New insights based on improved assays","volume":"170","author":"Graham","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6714","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.79.11.6714-6722.2005","article-title":"Norovirus and histo-blood group antigens: Demonstration of a wide spectrum of strain specificities and classification of two major binding groups among multiple binding patterns","volume":"79","author":"Huang","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"749","DOI":"10.1086\/427779","article-title":"Association of histo-blood group antigens and susceptibility to norovirus infections","volume":"191","author":"Rockx","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1631","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/civ165","article-title":"Innate susceptibility to norovirus infections influenced by FUT2 genotype in a United States pediatric population","volume":"60","author":"Currier","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1813","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiu672","article-title":"Norovirus Infection and Disease in an Ecuadorian Birth Cohort: Association of Certain Norovirus Genotypes With Host FUT2 Secretor Status","volume":"211","author":"Lopman","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1296","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.21200","article-title":"Outbreak studies of a GII-3 and a GII-4 norovirus revealed an association between HBGA phenotypes and viral infection","volume":"80","author":"Tan","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jin, M., He, Y., Li, H., Huang, P., Zhong, W., Yang, H., Zhang, H., Tan, M., and Duan, Z.J. (2013). Two gastroenteritis outbreaks caused by GII Noroviruses: Host susceptibility and HBGA phenotypes. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0058605"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e305","DOI":"10.1097\/INF.0000000000000443","article-title":"Genetic susceptibility to norovirus GII.3 and GII.4 infections in Chinese pediatric diarrheal disease","volume":"33","author":"Liu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"874.e1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2015.05.015","article-title":"Relationship between GII.3 norovirus infections and blood group antigens in young children in Tunisia","volume":"21","author":"Ayouni","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1366","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.02927-13","article-title":"Association between norovirus and rotavirus infection and histo-blood group antigen types in Vietnamese children","volume":"52","author":"Vu","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nordgren, J., Nitiema, L.W., Ouermi, D., Simpore, J., and Svensson, L. (2013). Host genetic factors affect susceptibility to norovirus infections in Burkina Faso. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0069557"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17687","DOI":"10.1038\/srep17687","article-title":"An outbreak caused by GII.17 norovirus with a wide spectrum of HBGA-associated susceptibility","volume":"5","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15351","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.79.24.15351-15355.2005","article-title":"A homozygous nonsense mutation (428G\u2192A) in the human secretor (FUT2) gene provides resistance to symptomatic norovirus (GGII) infections","volume":"79","author":"Thorven","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carlsson, B., Kindberg, E., Buesa, J., Rydell, G.E., Lidon, M.F., Montava, R., Abu Mallouh, R., Grahn, A., Rodriguez-Diaz, J., and Bellido, J. (2009). The G428A nonsense mutation in FUT2 provides strong but not absolute protection against symptomatic GII.4 Norovirus infection. PLoS ONE, 4.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0005593"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/civ747","article-title":"Epidemiologic, Virologic, and Host Genetic Factors of Norovirus Outbreaks in Long-term Care Facilities","volume":"62","author":"Costantini","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"21178","article-title":"Emergence of a novel GII.17 norovirus\u2014End of the GII.4 era?","volume":"20","author":"Vennema","year":"2015","journal-title":"Euro Surveill."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"728","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.21426","article-title":"Genetic susceptibility to symptomatic norovirus infection in Nicaragua","volume":"81","author":"Bucardo","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1086\/524145","article-title":"No association between histo-blood group antigens and susceptibility to clinical infections with genogroup II norovirus","volume":"197","author":"Halperin","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/708579","article-title":"Personalized genetic testing and norovirus susceptibility","volume":"25","author":"Prystajecky","year":"2014","journal-title":"Can. J. Infect. Dis. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smim.2006.07.009","article-title":"Mendelian resistance to human norovirus infections","volume":"18","author":"Kindberg","year":"2006","journal-title":"Semin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"King, J.R., Varade, J., and Hammarstrom, L. (2018). Fucosyltransferase Gene Polymorphisms and Lewisb-Negative Status Are Frequent in Swedish Newborns, With Implications for Infectious Disease Susceptibility and Personalized Medicine. J. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. Soc.","DOI":"10.1093\/jpids\/piy085"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nordgren, J., Sharma, S., Kambhampati, A., Lopman, B., and Svensson, L. (2016). Innate Resistance and Susceptibility to Norovirus Infection. PLoS Pathog., 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1005385"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2573","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00505-08","article-title":"Pediatric norovirus diarrhea in Nicaragua","volume":"46","author":"Bucardo","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2017.10.001","article-title":"Pediatric norovirus GII.4 infections in Nicaragua, 1999\u20132015","volume":"55","author":"Bucardo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Infect. Genet. Evol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1442","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jir039","article-title":"Norovirus GII-4 causes a more severe gastroenteritis than other noroviruses in young children","volume":"203","author":"Huhti","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Monedero, V., Buesa, J., and Rodriguez-Diaz, J. (2018). The Interactions between Host Glycobiology, Bacterial Microbiota, and Viruses in the Gut. Viruses, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/v10020096"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1013","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1537-2995.1999.39091013.x","article-title":"Molecular analysis of secretor type alpha(1,2)-fucosyltransferase gene mutations in the Chinese and Thai populations","volume":"39","author":"Chang","year":"1999","journal-title":"Transfusion"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiu054","article-title":"Increase in genogroup II.4 norovirus host spectrum by CagA-positive Helicobacter pylori infection","volume":"210","author":"Magalhaes","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9441","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01060-13","article-title":"Histo-blood group antigen-like substances of human enteric bacteria as specific adsorbents for human noroviruses","volume":"87","author":"Miura","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"934","DOI":"10.1097\/INF.0b013e3181ed9f2f","article-title":"Asymptomatic norovirus infections in Nicaraguan children and its association with viral properties and histo-blood group antigens","volume":"29","author":"Bucardo","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1454","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268810000439","article-title":"Prevalence and characteristics of asymptomatic norovirus infection in the community in England","volume":"138","author":"Phillips","year":"2010","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3996","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01516-07","article-title":"Norovirus infections in symptomatic and asymptomatic food handlers in Japan","volume":"45","author":"Ozawa","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1086\/375742","article-title":"Noroviruses bind to human ABO, Lewis, and secretor histo-blood group antigens: Identification of 4 distinct strain-specific patterns","volume":"188","author":"Huang","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1422","DOI":"10.1086\/508430","article-title":"Antibody prevalence and titer to norovirus (genogroup II) correlate with secretor (FUT2) but not with ABO phenotype or Lewis (FUT3) genotype","volume":"194","author":"Larsson","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11138","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00278-12","article-title":"Structural basis for the recognition of Lewis antigens by genogroup I norovirus","volume":"86","author":"Kubota","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1163","DOI":"10.1093\/glycob\/cws084","article-title":"Lewis histo-blood group alpha1,3\/alpha1,4 fucose residues may both mediate binding to GII.4 noroviruses","volume":"22","author":"Nasir","year":"2012","journal-title":"Glycobiology"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9595","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02614-09","article-title":"Genetic and phenotypic characterization of GII-4 noroviruses that circulated during 1987 to 2008","volume":"84","author":"Yang","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00567-17","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00567-17","article-title":"Human Sera Collected between 1979 and 2010 Possess Blocking-Antibody Titers to Pandemic GII.4 Noroviruses Isolated over Three Decades","volume":"91","author":"Sharma","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2011.01.002","article-title":"Mechanisms of GII.4 norovirus evolution","volume":"19","author":"Bull","year":"2011","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"942","DOI":"10.1086\/591140","article-title":"Reply to Chan et al., Tan and Jiang, and St. Clair and Patel","volume":"198","author":"Klement","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1533","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00061-17","article-title":"Slow Clearance of Norovirus following Infection with Emerging Variants of Genotype GII.4 Strains","volume":"55","author":"Gustavsson","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1111\/cei.12884","article-title":"Chronic norovirus infection and common variable immunodeficiency","volume":"188","author":"Woodward","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1111\/tid.12472","article-title":"Prolonged norovirus infection after pancreas transplantation: A case report and review of chronic norovirus","volume":"18","author":"Echenique","year":"2016","journal-title":"Transpl. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2018.00371","article-title":"Intrahost Norovirus Evolution in Chronic Infection Over 5 Years of Shedding in a Kidney Transplant Recipient","volume":"9","author":"Steyer","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265.e9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2016.12.010","article-title":"Chronic norovirus infection among solid organ recipients in a tertiary care hospital, The Netherlands, 2006\u20132014","volume":"23","author":"Fraaij","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcv.2014.08.004","article-title":"Prospective study on Norovirus infection among allogeneic stem cell transplant recipients: Prolonged viral excretion and viral RNA in the blood","volume":"61","author":"Lemes","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5850","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2010-12-325886","article-title":"Norovirus gastroenteritis causes severe and lethal complications after chemotherapy and hematopoietic stem cell transplantation","volume":"117","author":"Schwartz","year":"2011","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.005082-0","article-title":"Quasispecies dynamics and molecular evolution of human norovirus capsid P region during chronic infection","volume":"90","author":"Carlsson","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcv.2018.09.013","article-title":"Within-host evolution of virus variants during chronic infection with novel GII.P26-GII.26 norovirus","volume":"108","author":"Pietsch","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00352-16","DOI":"10.1128\/mSphere.00352-16","article-title":"Human Norovirus Evolution in a Chronically Infected Host","volume":"2","author":"Doerflinger","year":"2017","journal-title":"mSphere"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7244","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00203-14","article-title":"Within-host evolution results in antigenically distinct GII.4 noroviruses","volume":"88","author":"Debbink","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1387","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aaf5211","article-title":"Replication of human noroviruses in stem cell-derived human enteroids","volume":"353","author":"Ettayebi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1453","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2408.180126","article-title":"Human Norovirus Replication in Human Intestinal Enteroids as Model to Evaluate Virus Inactivation","volume":"24","author":"Costantini","year":"2018","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sato, S., Hisaie, K., Kurokawa, S., Suzuki, A., Sakon, N., Uchida, Y., Yuki, Y., and Kiyono, H. (2018). Human norovirus propagation in human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived intestinal epithelial cells. Cell. Mol. Gastroenterol. Hepatol.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcmgh.2018.11.001"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1763","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiu337","article-title":"A novel intramuscular bivalent norovirus virus-like particle vaccine candidate\u2013reactogenicity, safety, and immunogenicity in a phase 1 trial in healthy adults","volume":"210","author":"Treanor","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"746","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiy573","article-title":"Rotavirus Vaccine Take in Infants Is Associated With Secretor Status","volume":"219","author":"Armah","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1502","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-19718-y","article-title":"The Lewis A phenotype is a restriction factor for Rotateq and Rotarix vaccine-take in Nicaraguan children","volume":"8","author":"Bucardo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1380","DOI":"10.1126\/science.273.5280.1380","article-title":"A model of host-microbial interactions in an open mammalian ecosystem","volume":"273","author":"Bry","year":"1996","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1007\/s00418-005-0004-1","article-title":"Indigenous microbes and their soluble factors differentially modulate intestinal glycosylation steps in vivo. Use of a \u201clectin assay\u201d to survey in vivo glycosylation changes","volume":"124","author":"Freitas","year":"2005","journal-title":"Histochem. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rubio-del-Campo, A., Coll-Marques, J.M., Yebra, M.J., Buesa, J., Perez-Martinez, G., Monedero, V., and Rodriguez-Diaz, J. (2014). Noroviral p-particles as an in vitro model to assess the interactions of noroviruses with probiotics. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0089586"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45559","DOI":"10.1038\/srep45559","article-title":"Relevance of secretor status genotype and microbiota composition in susceptibility to rotavirus and norovirus infections in humans","volume":"7","author":"Buesa","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wacklin, P., Tuimala, J., Nikkila, J., Sebastian, T., Makivuokko, H., Alakulppi, N., Laine, P., Rajilic-Stojanovic, M., Paulin, L., and de Vos, W.M. (2014). Faecal microbiota composition in adults is associated with the FUT2 gene determining the secretor status. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0094863"},{"key":"ref_99","first-page":"357","article-title":"FUT2 genotype and secretory status are not associated with fecal microbial composition and inferred function in healthy subjects","volume":"9","author":"Turpin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Davenport, E.R., Goodrich, J.K., Bell, J.T., Spector, T.D., Ley, R.E., and Clark, A.G. (2016). ABO antigen and secretor statuses are not associated with gut microbiota composition in 1,500 twins. BMC Genom., 17.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12864-016-3290-1"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1413","DOI":"10.1038\/ng.3693","article-title":"Association of host genome with intestinal microbial composition in a large healthy cohort","volume":"48","author":"Turpin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Genet."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1396","DOI":"10.1038\/ng.3695","article-title":"Genome-wide association analysis identifies variation in vitamin D receptor and other host factors influencing the gut microbiota","volume":"48","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Genet."}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/11\/3\/226\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T12:36:37Z","timestamp":1760186197000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/11\/3\/226"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,6]]},"references-count":102,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,3]]}},"alternative-id":["v11030226"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v11030226","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,6]]}}}