{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,12]],"date-time":"2026-01-12T22:35:23Z","timestamp":1768257323842,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":26,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,12]],"date-time":"2019-12-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1576108800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000774","name":"Defense Threat Reduction AGency","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["HDTRA11810040"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HDTRA11810040"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000774","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) is a category B select agent pathogen that can be aerosolized. Infections in murine models and humans can advance to an encephalitic phenotype which may result in long-term neurological complications or death. No specific FDA-approved treatments or vaccines are available for the treatment or prevention of VEEV infection. Neurotropic viral infections have two damaging components: neuronal death caused by viral replication, and damage from the subsequent inflammatory response. Reducing the level of inflammation may lessen neurological tissue damage that often arises following VEEV infection. In this study, three commercially available anti-inflammatory drugs, Celecoxib, Rolipram, and Tofacitinib, were evaluated for antiviral activity in an astrocyte and a microglial model of VEEV infection. The inhibitors were tested against the vaccine strain VEEV TC-83, as well as the wild-type VEEV Trinidad donkey strain. Celecoxib, Tofacitinib, and Rolipram significantly decreased viral titers both after pre-treatment and post-treatment of infected cells. VEEV Trinidad Donkey (TrD) titers were reduced 6.45-fold in cells treated with 50 \u00b5M of Celecoxib, 2.45-fold when treated with 50 \u00b5M of Tofacitinib, and 1.81-fold when treated with 50 \u00b5M of Rolipram. Celecoxib was also shown to decrease inflammatory gene expression in the context of TC-83 infection. Overall, Celecoxib demonstrated potency as a countermeasure strategy that slowed VEEV infection and infection-induced inflammation in an in vitro model.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v11121151","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,12]],"date-time":"2019-12-12T11:06:41Z","timestamp":1576148801000},"page":"1151","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Efficacy of FDA-Approved Anti-Inflammatory Drugs Against Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Virus Infection"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6999-7564","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kenneth","family":"Risner","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, VA 20110, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Aslaa","family":"Ahmed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, VA 20110, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Allison","family":"Bakovic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, VA 20110, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Stephanie","family":"Kortchak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, VA 20110, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nishank","family":"Bhalla","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, VA 20110, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Aarthi","family":"Narayanan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, VA 20110, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.ento.49.061802.123422","article-title":"Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis","volume":"49","author":"Weaver","year":"2003","journal-title":"Annu. 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