{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,18]],"date-time":"2025-12-18T19:51:57Z","timestamp":1766087517094,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,20]],"date-time":"2020-01-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1579478400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["31902306"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["31902306"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"the National Project for Prevention and Control of Transboundary Animal Diseases","award":["2017YFD0501804"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2017YFD0501804"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) is an acute, high-mortality-rate, severe infectious disease caused by an emerging MERS coronavirus (MERS-CoV) that causes severe respiratory diseases. The continuous spread and great pandemic potential of MERS-CoV make it necessarily important to develop effective vaccines. We previously demonstrated that the application of Gram-positive enhancer matrix (GEM) particles as a bacterial vector displaying the MERS-CoV receptor-binding domain (RBD) is a very promising MERS vaccine candidate that is capable of producing potential neutralization antibodies. We have also used the rabies virus (RV) as a viral vector to design a recombinant vaccine by expressing the MERS-CoV S1 (spike) protein on the surface of the RV. In this study, we compared the immunological efficacy of the vaccine candidates in BALB\/c mice in terms of the levels of humoral and cellular immune responses. The results show that the rabies virus vector-based vaccine can induce remarkably earlier antibody response and higher levels of cellular immunity than the GEM particles vector. However, the GEM particles vector-based vaccine candidate can induce remarkably higher antibody response, even at a very low dose of 1 \u00b5g. These results indicate that vaccines constructed using different vaccine vector platforms for the same pathogen have different rates and trends in humoral and cellular immune responses in the same animal model. This discovery not only provides more alternative vaccine development platforms for MERS-CoV vaccine development, but also provides a theoretical basis for our future selection of vaccine vector platforms for other specific pathogens.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v12010125","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,21]],"date-time":"2020-01-21T03:04:43Z","timestamp":1579575883000},"page":"125","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":27,"title":["Characterization of the Immune Response of MERS-CoV Vaccine Candidates Derived from Two Different Vectors in Mice"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Entao","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Jilin Province for Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun 130122, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Feihu","family":"Yan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Jilin Province for Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun 130122, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Pei","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Jilin Province for Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun 130122, China"},{"name":"Animal Science and Technology College, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hang","family":"Chi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Jilin Province for Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun 130122, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1800-0741","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shengnan","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Jilin Province for Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun 130122, China"},{"name":"Animal Science and Technology College, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Guohua","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Jilin Province for Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun 130122, China"},{"name":"College of Animal Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi 832003, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chuanyu","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Jilin Province for Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun 130122, China"},{"name":"Animal Science and Technology College, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Na","family":"Feng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Jilin Province for Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun 130122, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hualei","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yongkun","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Jilin Province for Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun 130122, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7557-6982","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Songtao","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Jilin Province for Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun 130122, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xianzhu","family":"Xia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Jilin Province for Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun 130122, China"},{"name":"Animal Science and Technology College, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China"},{"name":"College of Animal Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi 832003, China"},{"name":"College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China"},{"name":"Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for the Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Disease and Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1814","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1211721","article-title":"Isolation of a novel coronavirus from a man with pneumonia in Saudi Arabia","volume":"367","author":"Zaki","year":"2012","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2015033","DOI":"10.4178\/epih\/e2015033","article-title":"2015 MERS outbreak in Korea: Hospital-to-hospital transmission","volume":"37","author":"Ki","year":"2015","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Health"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2016.03.003","article-title":"Epidemiology, Genetic Recombination, and Pathogenesis of Coronaviruses","volume":"24","author":"Su","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"760","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2019.1620083","article-title":"Single intranasal immunization with chimpanzee adenovirus-based vaccine induces sustained and protective immunity against MERS-CoV infection","volume":"8","author":"Jia","year":"2019","journal-title":"Emerg. Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aad1283","article-title":"An orthopoxvirus-based vaccine reduces virus excretion after MERS-CoV infection in dromedary camels","volume":"351","author":"Haagmans","year":"2016","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8651","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00614-15","article-title":"Protective Efficacy of Recombinant Modified Vaccinia Virus Ankara Delivering Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Spike Glycoprotein","volume":"89","author":"Volz","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"476","DOI":"10.1111\/imm.12462","article-title":"Systemic and mucosal immunity in mice elicited by a single immunization with human adenovirus type 5 or 41 vector-based vaccines carrying the spike protein of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus","volume":"145","author":"Guo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2264","DOI":"10.1016\/S2095-3119(17)61660-5","article-title":"Newcastle disease virus-based MERS-CoV candidate vaccine elicits high-level and lasting neutralizing antibodies in Bactrian camels","volume":"16","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Integr. Agric."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11654","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01815-15","article-title":"A Highly Immunogenic and Protective Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Vaccine Based on a Recombinant Measles Virus Vaccine Platform","volume":"89","author":"Malczyk","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e02040","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02040-16","article-title":"One-Health: A Safe, Efficient, Dual-Use Vaccine for Humans and Animals against Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus and Rabies Virus","volume":"91","author":"Wirblich","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2016.12.019","article-title":"Novel chimeric virus-like particles vaccine displaying MERS-CoV receptor-binding domain induce specific humoral and cellular immune response in mice","volume":"140","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12686","DOI":"10.18632\/oncotarget.8475","article-title":"MERS-CoV virus-like particles produced in insect cells induce specific humoural and cellular imminity in rhesus macaques","volume":"8","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Oncotarget"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, E., Chi, H., Huang, P., Yan, F., Zhang, Y., Liu, C., Wang, Z., Li, G., Zhang, S., and Mo, R. (2019). A Novel Bacterium-Like Particle Vaccine Displaying the MERS-CoV Receptor-Binding Domain Induces Specific Mucosal and Systemic Immune Responses in Mice. Viruses, 11.","key":"ref_13","DOI":"10.3390\/v11090799"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2069","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2017.02.063","article-title":"DNA vaccine encoding Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus S1 protein induces protective immune responses in mice","volume":"35","author":"Chi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44875","DOI":"10.1038\/srep44875","article-title":"Immunogenicity of Candidate MERS-CoV DNA Vaccines Based on the Spike Protein","volume":"7","author":"Abbas","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301ra132","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.aac7462","article-title":"A synthetic consensus anti-spike protein DNA vaccine induces protective immunity against Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus in nonhuman primates","volume":"7","author":"Muthumani","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1080\/14728222.2017.1271415","article-title":"MERS-CoV spike protein: A key target for antivirals","volume":"21","author":"Du","year":"2017","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Ther. Targets"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1038\/nature12328","article-title":"Molecular basis of binding between novel human coronavirus MERS-CoV and its receptor CD26","volume":"500","author":"Lu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10777","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01756-13","article-title":"Crystal structure of the receptor-binding domain from newly emerged Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus","volume":"87","author":"Chen","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"986","DOI":"10.1038\/cr.2013.92","article-title":"Structure of MERS-CoV spike receptor-binding domain complexed with human receptor DPP4","volume":"23","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cell Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.77.1.237-244.2003","article-title":"Second-generation rabies virus-based vaccine vectors expressing human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Gag have greatly reduced pathogenicity but are highly immunogenic","volume":"77","author":"McGettigan","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1007\/s11262-014-1160-y","article-title":"Using rabies virus vaccine strain SRV9 as viral vector to express exogenous gene","volume":"50","author":"Wang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Virus Genes"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2008.09.007","article-title":"Comparison of multiple vaccine vectors in a single heterologous prime-boost trial","volume":"26","author":"Barefoot","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1007\/s11262-014-1049-9","article-title":"An inactivated recombinant rabies CVS-11 virus expressing two copies of the glycoprotein elicits a higher level of neutralizing antibodies and provides better protection in mice","volume":"48","author":"Xue","year":"2014","journal-title":"Virus Genes"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4970","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1323279111","article-title":"Rapid generation of a mouse model for Middle East respiratory syndrome","volume":"111","author":"Zhao","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ajkd.2004.03.029","article-title":"Evaluation of T helper-1\/-2 balance on the basis of IgG subclasses and serum cytokines in children with glomerulonephritis","volume":"44","author":"Kawasaki","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Kidney Dis. Off. J. Natl. Kidney Found."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10605","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00558-11","article-title":"Inactivated or live-attenuated bivalent vaccines that confer protection against rabies and Ebola viruses","volume":"85","author":"Blaney","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4223","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-018-06741-w","article-title":"Non-neutralizing antibodies elicited by recombinant Lassa-Rabies vaccine are critical for protection against Lassa fever","volume":"9","author":"Hagen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S414","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiv251","article-title":"Preclinical Development of Inactivated Rabies Virus-Based Polyvalent Vaccine Against Rabies and Filoviruses","volume":"212","author":"Willet","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4430","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.75.9.4430-4434.2001","article-title":"Rabies virus-based vectors expressing human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) envelope protein induce a strong, cross-reactive cytotoxic T-lymphocyte response against envelope proteins from different HIV-1 isolates","volume":"75","author":"McGettigan","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Takayama-Ito, M., Lim, C.K., Yamaguchi, Y., Posadas-Herrera, G., Kato, H., Iizuka, I., Islam, M.T., Morimoto, K., and Saijo, M. (2018). Replication-incompetent rabies virus vector harboring glycoprotein gene of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) protects mice from LCMV challenge. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 12.","key":"ref_31","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0006398"},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"185","article-title":"Elimination of terrestrial rabies in western European countries","volume":"119","author":"Cliquet","year":"2004","journal-title":"Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"880","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.72.1.880-889.2006","article-title":"Novel surface display system for proteins on non-genetically modified gram-positive bacteria","volume":"72","author":"Bosma","year":"2006","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymeth.2005.09.015","article-title":"Mucosal vaccine delivery of antigens tightly bound to an adjuvant particle made from food-grade bacteria","volume":"38","author":"Kanninga","year":"2006","journal-title":"Methods"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-1605(98)00128-7","article-title":"Demonstration of safety of probiotics\u2014A review","volume":"44","author":"Salminen","year":"1998","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3900","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2006.02.040","article-title":"Immunogenicity of a malaria parasite antigen displayed by Lactococcus lactis in oral immunisations","volume":"24","author":"Ramasamy","year":"2006","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2497","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2006.09.026","article-title":"Development of lactococcal GEM-based pneumococcal vaccines","volume":"25","author":"Audouy","year":"2007","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1038\/mi.2009.131","article-title":"Neonatal mucosal immunization with a non-living, non-genetically modified Lactococcus lactis vaccine carrier induces systemic and local Th1-type immunity and protects against lethal bacterial infection","volume":"3","author":"Ramirez","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"470","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejpb.2010.08.003","article-title":"Gastro-intestinal delivery of influenza subunit vaccine formulation adjuvanted with Gram-positive enhancer matrix (GEM) particles","volume":"76","author":"Saluja","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6715","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.178.11.6715","article-title":"Cutting edge: TLR2 directly triggers Th1 effector functions","volume":"178","author":"Imanishi","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1538","DOI":"10.1002\/pmic.200800528","article-title":"NSOM- and AFM-based nanotechnology elucidates nano-structural and atomic-force features of a Y-pestis V immunogen-containing particle vaccine capable of eliciting robust response","volume":"9","author":"Zeng","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proteomics"},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"282","article-title":"Bacterium-like particles for efficient immune stimulation of existing vaccines and new subunit vaccines in mucosal applications","volume":"4","author":"Haijema","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rigter, A., Widjaja, I., Versantvoort, H., Coenjaerts, F.E., van Roosmalen, M., Leenhouts, K., Rottier, P.J., Haijema, B.J., and de Haan, C.A. (2013). A protective and safe intranasal RSV vaccine based on a recombinant prefusion-like form of the F protein bound to bacterium-like particles. PLoS ONE, 8.","key":"ref_43","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0071072"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"696","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2015.09.007","article-title":"Immunogenicity and immunoprotection of porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) Cap protein displayed by Lactococcus lactis","volume":"34","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1038\/icb.2015.24","article-title":"Shigella IpaB and IpaD displayed on L. lactis bacterium-like particles induce protective immunity in adult and infant mice","volume":"93","author":"Heine","year":"2015","journal-title":"Immunol. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2875-11-50","article-title":"Bacterium-like particles as multi-epitope delivery platform for Plasmodium berghei circumsporozoite protein induce complete protection against malaria in mice","volume":"11","author":"Audouy","year":"2012","journal-title":"Malar. J."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csbj.2015.11.001","article-title":"Self-assembling protein nanoparticles in the design of vaccines","volume":"14","author":"Malito","year":"2016","journal-title":"Comput. Struct. Biotechnol. J."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5344","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2007.08.015","article-title":"Interactions of antigen-loaded polylactide particles with macrophages and their correlation with the immune response","volume":"28","author":"Kanchan","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.2174\/156720108785914961","article-title":"Functional polymeric nano\/microparticles for surface adsorption and delivery of protein and DNA vaccines","volume":"5","author":"Caputo","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr. Drug Deliv."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"488","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0818-9641.2004.01272.x","article-title":"Vaccine adjuvants: Current state and future trends","volume":"82","author":"Petrovsky","year":"2004","journal-title":"Immunol. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.1590\/S0100-879X2011000600003","article-title":"Trends in adjuvant development for vaccines: DAMPs and PAMPs as potential new adjuvants","volume":"44","author":"Miyaji","year":"2011","journal-title":"Braz. J. Med Biol. Res. Rev. Bras. Pesqui. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2951","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M109.036343","article-title":"TLR2 activation is essential to induce a Th1 shift in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells by plant stanols and plant sterols","volume":"285","author":"Brull","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1083\/jcb.150.3.601","article-title":"Rabies virus-induced membrane fusion pathway","volume":"150","author":"Gaudin","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Cell Biol."}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/12\/1\/125\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T13:20:20Z","timestamp":1760361620000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/12\/1\/125"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,20]]},"references-count":53,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,1]]}},"alternative-id":["v12010125"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v12010125","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1999-4915"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,20]]}}}