{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,11]],"date-time":"2026-09-11T23:06:16Z","timestamp":1789167976393,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":82,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,5]],"date-time":"2020-02-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1580860800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Rabies virus (RABV) is the only lyssavirus known to be present within the Caribbean. The island of Trinidad, is richly diverse in chiropteran fauna and endemic for bat-transmitted rabies with low RABV isolation rates observed in this population. We aimed to determine the seroprevalence of rabies virus neutralizing antibodies (RVNA) in light of spatio-temporal and bat demographic factors to infer the extent of natural exposure to RABV in the Trinidadian bat population. RVNA titers were determined by the RABV micro-neutralization test on 383 bat samples representing 21 species, comprising 30.9% of local bat diversity, from 31 locations across the island over 5 years. RVNA was positively detected in 33 samples (8.6%) representing 6 bat species (mainly frugivorous) with titers ranging from 0.1 to 19 IU\/mL (mean 1.66 IU\/mL). The analyses based on a multivariable binomial generalised linear mixed-effects model showed that bat age and year of capture were significant predictors of seropositivity. Thus, juvenile bats were more likely to be seropositive when compared to adults (estimate 1.13; p = 0.04) which may suggest early exposure to the RABV with possible implications for viral amplification in this population. Temporal variation in rabies seropositivity, 2012\u20132014 versus 2015\u20132017 (estimate 1.07; p = 0.03) may have been related to the prevailing rabies epizootic situation. Regarding other factors investigated, RVNA was found in bats from both rural and non-rural areas, as well as in both hematophagous and non-hematophagous bat species. The most common seropositive species, Artibeus jamaicensis planirostris is ubiquitous throughout the island which may potentially facilitate human exposure. The findings of this study should be factored into public health assessments on the potential for rabies transmission by non-hematophagous bats in Trinidad.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v12020178","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,6]],"date-time":"2020-02-06T02:59:18Z","timestamp":1580957958000},"page":"178","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":26,"title":["The Serological Prevalence of Rabies Virus-Neutralizing Antibodies in the Bat Population on the Caribbean Island of Trinidad"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8547-3146","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Janine F. R.","family":"Seetahal","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Preclinical Sciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Campus, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lauren","family":"Greenberg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Panayampalli Subbian","family":"Satheshkumar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Manuel J.","family":"Sanchez-Vazquez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pan American Food-and-Mouth Disease Centre (PANAFTOSA), Pan American Health Organization, Rio de Janeiro CEP 25045-002, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"George","family":"Legall","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Food Production and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Campus, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shamjeet","family":"Singh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Campus, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vernie","family":"Ramkissoon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Preclinical Sciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Campus, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tony","family":"Schountz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2288-3196","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vincent","family":"Munster","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Virus Ecology Unit, Laboratory of Virology, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, NIAID\/NIH, Hamilton, MT 59840, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christopher A. L.","family":"Oura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Campus, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6533-9302","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christine V. F.","family":"Carrington","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Preclinical Sciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Campus, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Blanton, J.D., and Rupprecht, C. (2008). Travel vaccination for rabies. Expert Rev. Vaccines, 7.","DOI":"10.1586\/14760584.7.5.613"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"67","article-title":"Human monoclonal antibody and vaccine approaches to prevent human rabies","volume":"317","author":"Nagarajan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2283","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-018-3814-x","article-title":"Taxonomy of the order Mononegavirales: Update 2018","volume":"163","author":"Amarasinghe","year":"2018","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005266","article-title":"The global phylogeography of lyssaviruses-challenging the \u2018out of Africa\u2019 hypothesis","volume":"10","author":"Hayman","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS Neg. Trop. Dis."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2013). WHO Expert Consultation on Rabies, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0803.010330","article-title":"Serologic Evidence of Lyssavirus Infections among Bats, the Philippines","volume":"8","author":"Arguin","year":"2002","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"178","article-title":"Notes from the field: Wildlife rabies on an island free from canine rabies for 52 years\u2014Taiwan, 2013","volume":"63","author":"Wu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.7589\/2015-01-007","article-title":"Pathology and Molecular Detection of Rabies Virus in Ferret Badgers Associated with a Rabies Outbreak in Taiwan","volume":"52","author":"Chiou","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Wildl. Dis."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"260","article-title":"Rabies transmitted by vampire bats to humans: An emerging zoonotic disease in Latin America?","volume":"25","author":"Schneider","year":"2009","journal-title":"Rev. Panam. Salud Publica (Pan. Am. J. Public Health)"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vigilato, M.A.N., Clavijo, A., Knobl, T., Silva, H.M.T., Cosivi, O., Schneider, M.C., Leanes, L.F., Belotto, A.J., and Espinal, M.A. (2013). Progress towards eliminating canine rabies: Policies and perspectives from Latin America and the Caribbean. Phil. Trans. R Soc. B, 368.","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2012.0143"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"678","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1904.121482","article-title":"Rabies Update for Latin America and the Caribbean","volume":"19","author":"Vigilato","year":"2013","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2005.03.006","article-title":"Overview of rabies in the Americas","volume":"111","author":"Belotto","year":"2005","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1590\/S0036-46652015000100009","article-title":"Bat borne rabies in Latin America","volume":"57","author":"Escobar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Rev. Inst. Med. Trop. Sao Paulo"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"676","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1188836","article-title":"Host phylogeny constrains cross-species emergence and establishment of rabies virus in bats","volume":"329","author":"Streicker","year":"2010","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"464","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2006.02.007","article-title":"The evolutionary history and dynamics of bat rabies virus","volume":"6","author":"Davis","year":"2006","journal-title":"Infect. Genet. Evol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.20506\/rst.37.2.2808","article-title":"Rabies virus vectors and reservoir species","volume":"37","author":"Gilbert","year":"2018","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Tech."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.12688\/f1000research.10416.1","article-title":"Lyssaviruses and rabies: Current conundrums, concerns, contradictions and controversies","volume":"6","author":"Rupprecht","year":"2017","journal-title":"F1000 Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Seetahal, J.F.R., Vokaty, A., Carrington, C.V., Vigilato, M., Pradel, J., Louison, B., Sauers, A., Roopnarine, R., Millien, M., and Rupprecht, C. (2018). Rabies in the Caribbean: A situational analysis and historical review. Trop. Med. Infect. Dis., 3.","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed3030089"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Gomes, G.A., and Reid, F.A. (2015). Bats of Trinidad and Tobago: A Field Guide and Natural History, Trinibats."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Goodwin, G.G., and Greenhall, A.M. (1961). A Review of the Bats of Trinidad and Tobago: Descriptions, Rabies Infection and Ecology, Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7998.1972.tb01361.x","article-title":"The biting and feeding habits of the vampire bat, Desmodus rotundus","volume":"168","author":"Greenhall","year":"1972","journal-title":"J. Zool. Lond."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Seetahal, J.F.R., Velasco-Villa, A., Allicock, O.M., Adesiyun, A.A., Bissessar, J., Amor, K., Phillip-Hosein, A., Marston, D.A., McElhinney, L.M., and Shi, M. (2013). Evolutionary history and phylogeography of rabies viruses associated with outbreaks in Trinidad. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002365"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1080\/00034983.1936.11684948","article-title":"Rabies in the vampire bat of Trinidad with special reference to the clinical course and the latency of infection","volume":"30","author":"Pawan","year":"1936","journal-title":"Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1080\/00034983.1936.11684921","article-title":"The transmission of paralytic rabies in Trinidad by the vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus murinus Wagner 1840)","volume":"30","author":"Pawan","year":"1936","journal-title":"Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1080\/00034983.1948.11685359","article-title":"Fruit-eating bats and paralytic rabies in Trinidad","volume":"42","author":"Pawan","year":"1948","journal-title":"Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"165","article-title":"A transmissao da raiva dos herbivoros pelos morcegos da familia Desmodontidae","volume":"I","year":"1934","journal-title":"Rev. Dep. Nac. Prod. Anim."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Seetahal, J., Vokaty, A., Carrington, C., Adesiyun, A., Mahabir, R., Hinds, A., and Rupprecht, C. (2017). The History of Rabies in Trinidad: Epidemiology and Control Measures. Trop. Med. Infect. Dis., 2.","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed2030027"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2018.11.020","article-title":"Of bats and livestock: The epidemiology of rabies in Trinidad, West Indies","volume":"228","author":"Seetahal","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-13.2.131","article-title":"Rabies virus and antibody in bats in Grenada and Trinidad","volume":"13","author":"Price","year":"1977","journal-title":"J. Wildl. Dis."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zieger, U., Cheetham, S., Santana, S.E., Leiser-miller, L., Matthew-Belmar, V., Hooman, G., and Fooks, A.R. (2017). Natural exposure of bats in Grenada to rabies virus. Infect. Ecol. Epidemiol., 7.","DOI":"10.1080\/20008686.2017.1332935"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Thoisy, B., Bourhy, H., Delaval, M., Pontier, D., Dacheux, L., Darcissac, E., Donato, D., Guidez, A., Larrous, F., and Lavenir, R. (2016). Bioecological Drivers of Rabies Virus Circulation in a Neotropical Bat Community. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004378"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Berger, F., Desplanches, N., Baillargeaux, S., Joubert, M., Miller, M., Ribadeau-Dumas, F., Spiegel, A., and Bourhy, H. (2013). Rabies Risk: Difficulties encountered during management of grouped cases of bat bites in 2 isolated villages in French Guiana. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002258"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Smith, T.G., and Gilbert, A.T. (2017). Comparison of a Micro-Neutralization Test with the Rapid Fluorescent Focus Inhibition Test for Measuring Rabies Virus Neutralizing Antibodies. Trop. Med. Infect. Dis., 2.","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed2030024"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stading, B., Ellison, J.A., Carson, W.C., Satheshkumar, P.S., Rocke, T.E., and Osorio, J.E. (2017). Protection of bats (Eptesicus fuscus) against rabies following topical or oronasal exposure to a recombinant raccoon poxvirus vaccine. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005958"},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"535","article-title":"A rapid reproducible test for determining rabies neutralizing antibody","volume":"48","author":"Smith","year":"1973","journal-title":"Bull. World Health Organ."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a118408","article-title":"A simple method of estimating fifty per cent endpoints","volume":"27","author":"Reed","year":"1938","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Minitab Inc. (1991). Minitab Reference Manual: Macintosh Version, Release 8, Minitab."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"R Development Core Team (2015). R: A Language and Environment for Statisitcal Computing, R Foundation for Statistical Computing."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trstmh.2003.10.019","article-title":"Prevalence of rabies and LPM paramyxovirus antibody in non-hematophagous bats captured in the Central Pacific coast of Mexico","volume":"98","author":"Schnell","year":"2004","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1308","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1508.081522","article-title":"Human rabies and rabies in vampire and nonvampire bat species, Southeastern Peru, 2007","volume":"15","author":"Vasquez","year":"2009","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"3384","article-title":"Ecological and anthropogenic drivers of rabies exposure in vampire bats: Implications for transmission and control","volume":"279","author":"Streicker","year":"2012","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ellison, J.A., Gilbert, A.T., Recuenco, S., Moran, D., Alvarez, D.A., Kuzmina, N., Garcia, D.L., Peruski, L.F., Mendonca, M.T., and Lindblade, K.A. (2014). Bat rabies in Guatemala. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003070"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.1590\/0037-8682-0189-2014","article-title":"Rabies surveillance in bats in Northwestern State of Sao Paulo","volume":"47","author":"Casagrande","year":"2014","journal-title":"Rev. Soc. Bras. Med. Trop."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"222","article-title":"Determinacion de las tasa de ataque de rabia en murci\u00e9lagos","volume":"73","author":"Delpietro","year":"1972","journal-title":"Bol. Oficina Sanit Panam"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Constantine, D.G. (2009). Bat Rabies and Other Lyssavirus Infections.","DOI":"10.3133\/cir1329"},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Seetahal, J.F.R. (2012). Annual Report of the Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory 2011\u20132012."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Seetahal, J.F.R. (2013). Annual Report of the Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory 2012\u20132013."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0005258","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005258","article-title":"A Pan-Lyssavirus Taqman Real-Time RT-PCR Assay for the Detection of Highly Variable Rabies virus and Other Lyssaviruses","volume":"11","author":"Wadhwa","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Seetahal, J.F.R., Allicock, O.M., Kinsella, C.M., Sahadeo, N., Sameroff, S.C., Ramkission, V., Lipkin, W.I., Oura, C.A.L., and Carrington, C.V.F. (2020). Metagenomic analysis of viral diversity in neotropical bats within the Caribbean, in preparation."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2360","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.020073-0","article-title":"Host immunity to repeated rabies virus infection in big brown bats","volume":"91","author":"Turmelle","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"612","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-44.3.612","article-title":"Experimental rabies virus infection of big brown bats (Eptesicus fuscus)","volume":"44","author":"Jackson","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Wildl. Dis."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"O\u2019Shea, T.J., Bowen, R.A., Stanley, T.R., Shankar, V., and Rupprecht, C.E. (2014). Variability in seroprevalence of rabies virus neutralizing antibodies and associated factors in a Colorado population of big brown bats (Eptesicus fuscus). PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0086261"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268805003705","article-title":"Salivary excretion of rabies virus by healthy vampire bats","volume":"133","author":"Brisseau","year":"2005","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20837","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1308817110","article-title":"Resolving the roles of immunity, pathogenesis and immigration for rabies persistence in vampire bats","volume":"110","author":"Blackwood","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1703.100526","article-title":"Amplification of emerging viruses in a bat colony","volume":"17","author":"Drexler","year":"2011","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Basgoz, N. (2000). Evolution of public health recommendations for human rabies prophylaxis after bat exposure in the United States. Rethinking Rabies Risks Sharpening Clinical Skills for a Reemergence Threat, Harvard Medical School."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-13.4.366","article-title":"Naturally occuring rabies virus and neutralizing antibody in two species of insectivorous bats of New York State","volume":"13","author":"Trimarchi","year":"1977","journal-title":"J. Wildl. Dis."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1980.29.254","article-title":"Experimental rabies in the vampire bat","volume":"29","author":"Moreno","year":"1980","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.17525\/vrrjournal.v23i1.334","article-title":"Serological survey of rabies virus infection among bats in Brazil","volume":"23","author":"Horta","year":"2018","journal-title":"Virus Rev. Res."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-25.4.490","article-title":"Prevalence of rabies specific antibodies in the Mexican free-tailed bat (Tadarida brasiliensis mexicana) at Lava Cave, New Mexico","volume":"25","author":"Steece","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Wildl. Dis."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-22.2.249","article-title":"Absence of prenatal infection of bats with rabies virus","volume":"22","author":"Constantine","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Wildl. Dis."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2008.0163","article-title":"Ecology of rabies virus exposure in colonies of Brazilian free-tailed bats (Tadarida brasiliensis) at natural and man-made roosts in Texas","volume":"10","author":"Turmelle","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10208","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1010875108","article-title":"Host and viral ecology determine bat rabies seasonality and maintenance","volume":"108","author":"George","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-25.3.329","article-title":"Evidence for prenatal transfer of rabies virus in the Mexican free-tailed bat (Tadarida brasiliensis mexicana)","volume":"25","author":"Steece","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Wildl. Dis."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1007\/s10393-013-0856-0","article-title":"Deciphering serology to understand the ecology of infectious diseases in wildlife","volume":"10","author":"Gilbert","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ecohealth"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00171677","article-title":"Communal nursing in the evening bat, Nycticeius humeralis","volume":"31","author":"Wilkinson","year":"1992","journal-title":"Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1439-0310.1991.tb00376.x","article-title":"Nursing Behavior in Mexican Free-tailed Bat Maternity Colonies","volume":"85","author":"McCracken","year":"1991","journal-title":"Ethology"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1038\/nature03965","article-title":"Mate fidelity and intra-lineage polygyny in greater horseshoe bats","volume":"437","author":"Rossiter","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"626","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1404.071439","article-title":"Detection and prevalence patterns of group I coronaviruses in bats, northern Germany","volume":"14","author":"Ipsen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"861","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2007.1260","article-title":"Reproduction and nutritional stress are risk factors for Hendra virus infection in little red flying foxes (Pteropus scapulatus)","volume":"275","author":"Plowright","year":"2008","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"Jackson, A.C., and William, W.H. (2007). Epidemiology. Rabies, Elsevier. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1016\/S0035-9203(36)90049-4","article-title":"The study and control of paralytic rabies transmitted by bats in Trinidad, British West Indies","volume":"29","author":"Urich","year":"1936","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_73","first-page":"204","article-title":"Extracts from the administration report of the Surgeon General 1925\u20131941","volume":"Volume XXI","author":"Waterman","year":"1959","journal-title":"Caribbean Medical Journal: Paralytic Rabies Transmitted by Bats in Trinidad"},{"key":"ref_74","first-page":"45","article-title":"Bat transmitted paralytic rabies in Trinidad","volume":"12","author":"Williams","year":"1960","journal-title":"Can. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1590\/S0036-46652015000600006","article-title":"Virological and serological diagnosis of rabies in bats from an urban area in the Brazilian Amazaon","volume":"57","author":"Oliveira","year":"2015","journal-title":"Rev. Inst. Med. Trop. S\u00e3o Paulo"},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"Lord, R.D. (1980, January 4\u20136). An ecological strategy for controlling rabies through the elimination of vampire bats. Proceedings of the Vertebrate Pest Conference, Fresno, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_77","first-page":"79","article-title":"Mitochondrial DNA polymorphism in three Antillean island populations of the fruit bats, Artibeus jamaicensis","volume":"5","author":"Pumo","year":"1988","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"712","DOI":"10.1644\/06-MAMM-A-125R.1","article-title":"Phylogenetics and phylogeography of the Artibeus jamaicensis complex based on cytochrome b DNA sequences","volume":"88","author":"Larsen","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Mammol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nadin-Davis, S. (2015). Rabies: Virus and disease. Encyclopedia of Life Sciences, Wiley Online Library, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470015902.a0002244.pub3"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Melade, J., McCulloch, S., Ramasindrazana, B., Lagadec, E., Turpin, M., Pascalis, H., Goodman, S.M., Markotter, W., and Dellagi, K. (2016). Serological Evidence of Lyssaviruses among Bats on Southwestern Indian Ocean Islands. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0160553"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7585","DOI":"10.1002\/ece3.3233","article-title":"Population struture of a widespread bat (Tadarida brasiliensis) in an island system","volume":"7","author":"Speer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3268","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.75.7.3268-3276.2001","article-title":"Evidence of two Lyssavirus phylogroups with distinct pathogenicity and immunogenicity","volume":"75","author":"Badrane","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Virol."}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/12\/2\/178\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T08:54:55Z","timestamp":1760172895000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/12\/2\/178"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,5]]},"references-count":82,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,2]]}},"alternative-id":["v12020178"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v12020178","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,5]]}}}