{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T09:57:26Z","timestamp":1790762246461,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":63,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,28]],"date-time":"2020-04-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1588032000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"German Federal Office for Agriculture and Food","award":["2819105315, 2819104915, 2818SE001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2819105315, 2819104915, 2818SE001"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In 2018, West Nile virus (WNV) broke out for the first time in Germany, with continuation of the epidemic in 2019, involving birds, horses and humans. To identify vectors and characterize the virus, mosquitoes were collected in both years in zoological gardens and on a horse meadow immediately following the diagnosis of disease cases in birds and horses. Mosquitoes were identified and screened for WNV by qRT-PCR, with virus-positive samples being sequenced for the viral envelope protein gene. While no positive mosquitoes were found in 2018, seven mosquito pools tested positive for WNV in 2019 in the Tierpark (Wildlife Park) Berlin. The pools consisted of Cx. pipiens biotype pipiens (n = 5), and a mixture of Cx. p. biotype pipiens and Cx. p. biotype molestus (n = 2), or hybrids of these, and were collected between 13 August and 24 September 2019. The virus strain turned out to be nearly identical to two WNV strains isolated from birds diseased in 2018 in eastern Germany. The findings represent the first demonstration of WNV in mosquitoes in Germany and include the possibility of local overwintering of the virus.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v12050493","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,29]],"date-time":"2020-04-29T01:29:15Z","timestamp":1588123755000},"page":"493","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":55,"title":["West Nile Virus Mosquito Vectors (Diptera: Culicidae) in Germany"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Helge","family":"Kampen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Infectology, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1258-5646","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cora M.","family":"Holicki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5295-7339","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ute","family":"Ziegler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0215-185X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Martin H.","family":"Groschup","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8647-0497","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Birke Andrea","family":"Tews","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Infectology, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Doreen","family":"Werner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Leibniz-Centre for Agricultural Landscape Research, 15374 Muencheberg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0903.020628","article-title":"Experimental infection of North American birds with the New York 1999 strain of West Nile virus","volume":"9","author":"Komar","year":"2003","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cll.2009.10.006","article-title":"West Nile virus","volume":"30","author":"Rossi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin. Lab. Med."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e219","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.12334","article-title":"Emergence of equine West Nile encephalitis in Central Macedonia, Greece, 2010","volume":"63","author":"Bouzalas","year":"2016","journal-title":"Transbound. Emerg. Dis."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"376230","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/376230","article-title":"The global ecology and epidemiology of West Nile virus","volume":"2015","author":"Chancey","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biomed. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"277","article-title":"Neutralizing antibodies against some neurotropic viruses determined in human sera in Albania","volume":"3","author":"Dedei","year":"1959","journal-title":"J. Hyg. Epidemiol. Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"4170","article-title":"Isolement en France du virus West Nile \u00e0 partir de malades et du vecteur Culex molestus Ficalbi","volume":"D259","author":"Hannoun","year":"1964","journal-title":"C. R. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"29","article-title":"Epidemiology of West Nile in Europe and in the Mediterranean basin","volume":"4","author":"Calistri","year":"2010","journal-title":"Open Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.2001.tb02690.x","article-title":"West Nile in the Mediterranean basin: 1950\u20132000","volume":"951","author":"Murgue","year":"2001","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ladbury, G.A., Gavana, M., Danis, K., Papa, A., Papamichail, D., Mourelatos, S., Gewehr, S., Theocharopoulos, G., Bonovas, S., and Benos, A. (2013). Population seroprevalence study after a West Nile virus lineage 2 epidemic, Greece, 2010. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0080432"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1868","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1710.110525","article-title":"Outbreak of West Nile virus infection in Greece, 2010","volume":"17","author":"Danis","year":"2011","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E545","DOI":"10.1111\/1469-0691.12018","article-title":"Circulation of West Nile virus lineage 1 and 2 during an outbreak in Italy","volume":"18","author":"Magurano","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tmaid.2018.03.001","article-title":"Re-emergence of severe West Nile virus neuroinvasive disease in humans in Romania, 2012 to 2017\u2014Implications for travel medicine","volume":"22","author":"Popescu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Travel Med. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"ECDC (2020, April 28). Epidemiological Update: West Nile Virus Transmission Season in Europe. Available online: https:\/\/www.ecdc.europa.eu\/en\/news-events\/epidemiological-update-west-nile-virus-transmission-season-europe-2018."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"ECDC (2020, April 28). Historical Data by Year\u2014West Nile Fever Seasonal Surveillance. Available online: https:\/\/www.ecdc.europa.eu\/en\/west-nile-fever\/surveillance-and-disease-data\/historical."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4869","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph10104869","article-title":"European surveillance for West Nile virus in mosquito populations","volume":"10","author":"Engler","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-94075-5_5","article-title":"Vector potential of mosquito species (Diptera: Culicidae) occurring in Central Europe","volume":"Volume 10","author":"Benelli","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mosquito-Borne Diseases: Implications for Public Health"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e456","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-018-3030-2","article-title":"Uranotaenia unguiculata Edwards, 1913 are attracted to sound, feed on amphibians, and are infected with multiple viruses","volume":"11","author":"Camp","year":"2018","journal-title":"Parasit. Vectors"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jansen, S., Heitmann, A., L\u00fchken, R., Leggewie, M., Helms, M., Badusche, M., Rossini, G., Schmidt-Chanasit, J., and Tannich, E. (2019). Culex torrentium: A potent vector for the transmission of West Nile virus in Central Europe. Viruses, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/v11060492"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0505.990505","article-title":"West Nile fever \u2013 a reemerging mosquito-borne viral disease in Europe","volume":"5","author":"Halouzka","year":"1999","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1007\/s10096-003-1085-1","article-title":"West Nile virus: An overview of its spread in Europe and the Mediterranean basin in contrast to its spread in the Americas","volume":"23","author":"Zeller","year":"2004","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2007.0266","article-title":"Vector competence of some French Culex and Aedes mosquitoes for West Nile virus","volume":"8","author":"Balenghien","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vector-Borne Zoonot. Dis."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1577","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2011.08.013","article-title":"\u201eBird biting\u201d mosquitoes and human disease: A review of the role of Culex pipiens complex mosquitoes in epidemiology","volume":"11","author":"Farajollahi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Infect. Genet. Evol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e96","DOI":"10.1038\/emi.2017.82","article-title":"Vector competence of European mosquitoes for West Nile virus","volume":"6","author":"Vogels","year":"2017","journal-title":"Emerg. Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e109","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-019-3349-3","article-title":"(2019): The Asian bush mosquito Aedes japonicus japonicus (Diptera: Culicidae) in Europe, 17 years after its first detection, with a focus on monitoring methods","volume":"12","author":"Koban","year":"2019","journal-title":"Parasit. Vectors"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1603\/0022-2585-38.2.130","article-title":"Vector competence of North American mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) for West Nile virus","volume":"38","author":"Turell","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1111\/mve.12273","article-title":"Vector competence of field populations of the mosquito species Aedes japonicus japonicus and Culex pipiens from Switzerland for two West Nile virus strains","volume":"32","author":"Wagner","year":"2017","journal-title":"Med. Vet. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"742","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0704.017426","article-title":"West Nile virus in overwintering Culex mosquitoes, New York City, 2000","volume":"7","author":"Nasci","year":"2001","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"326","article-title":"The discovery of West Nile virus in overwintering Culex pipiens (Diptera: Culicidae) mosquitoes in Lehigh County, Pennsylvania","volume":"20","author":"Bugbee","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Am. Mosq. Control Assoc."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/42.3.490","article-title":"Detection of West Nile viral RNA from overwintering pool of Culex pipiens pipiens (Diptera: Culicidae) in New Jersey","volume":"42","author":"Farajollahi","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-017-2399-7","article-title":"West Nile virus in overwintering mosquitoes, Central Europe","volume":"10","author":"Rudolf","year":"2017","journal-title":"Parasit. Vectors"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"757","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1993.48.757","article-title":"Vertical transmission of West Nile virus by Culex and Aedes species mosquitoes","volume":"48","author":"Baqar","year":"1993","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"640","DOI":"10.1603\/0022-2585-39.4.640","article-title":"Experimental vertical transmission of West Nile virus by Culex pipiens (Diptera: Culicidae)","volume":"39","author":"Dohm","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2018.12.005","article-title":"West Nile virus epizootic in Germany, 2018","volume":"162","author":"Ziegler","year":"2019","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"(2020, April 28). FLI: Erster Fall von West-Nil-Virus Infektion 2019. Available online: https:\/\/www.fli.de\/de\/aktuelles\/kurznachrichten\/neues-einzelansicht\/erster-fall-von-west-nil-virus-infektion-2019."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ziegler, U., Santos, P., Groschup, M.H., Hattendorf, C., Eiden, M., H\u00f6per, D., Eisermann, P., Keller, M., Michel, F., and Klopfleisch, R. (2020). West Nile virus epidemic in Germany triggered by epizootic emergence, 2019. Viruses, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/v12040448"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2009.0236","article-title":"West Nile virus monitoring of migratory and resident birds in Germany","volume":"10","author":"Seidowski","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vector Borne Zoonot. Dis."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2014.1746","article-title":"Epidemic spread of Usutu virus in Southwest Germany in 2011 to 2013 and monitoring of wild birds for Usutu and West Nile viruses","volume":"15","author":"Ziegler","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vector Borne Zoonot. Dis."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"687","DOI":"10.1111\/tmi.12676","article-title":"Surveillance of maternal antibodies against West Nile virus in chicken eggs in South-West Germany","volume":"21","author":"Engel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trop. Med. Int. Health"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30501","DOI":"10.2807\/1560-7917.ES.2017.22.14.30501","article-title":"Blood donor screening for West Nile virus (WNV) revealed acute Usutu virus (USUV) infection, Germany, September 2016","volume":"22","author":"Cadar","year":"2017","journal-title":"Euro Surveill."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Scheuch, D.E., Sch\u00e4fer, M., Eiden, M., Heym, E.C., Ziegler, U., Walther, D., Schmidt-Chanasit, J., Keller, M., Groschup, M.H., and Kampen, H. (2018). Detection of Usutu, Sindbis, and Batai viruses in mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) collected in Germany, 2011-2016. Viruses, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/v10070389"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Michel, F., Fischer, D., Eiden, M., Fast, C., Reuschel, M., M\u00fcller, K., Rinder, M., Urbaniak, S., Brandes, F., and Schwehn, R. (2018). West Nile virus and Usutu virus monitoring of wild birds in Germany. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph15010171"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Michel, F., Sieg, M., Fischer, D., Keller, M., Eiden, M., Reuschel, M., Schmidt, V., Schwehn, R., Rinder, M., and Urbaniak, S. (2019). Evidence for West Nile virus and Usutu virus infections in wild and resident birds in Germany, 2017 and 2018. Viruses, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/v11070674"},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Schaffner, F., Angel, G., Geoffroy, B., Hervy, J.P., Rhaiem, A., and Brunhes, J. (2001). The Mosquitoes of Europe. An Identification and Training Programme, IRD \u00c9ditions & EID M\u00e9diterrann\u00e9e."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Becker, N., Petric, D., Zgomba, M., Boase, C., Dahl, C., Madon, M., and Kaiser, A. (2010). Mosquitoes and Their Control, Springer. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-92874-4"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rudolf, M., Czajka, C., B\u00f6rstler, J., Melaun, C., J\u00f6st, H., von Thien, H., Badusche, M., Becker, N., Schmidt-Chanasit, J., and Kr\u00fcger, A. (2013). First nationwide surveillance of Culex pipiens complex and Culex torrentium mosquitoes demonstrated the presence of Culex pipiens biotype pipiens\/molestus hybrids in Germany. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0071832"},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"(2020, April 28). Deutschland kartiert die Stechm\u00fccken. Available online: https:\/\/mueckenatlas.com."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3253","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-017-5619-3","article-title":"Emerging mosquito species in Germany \u2013 a synopsis after 6 years of mosquito monitoring (2011\u20132016)","volume":"116","author":"Kampen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1790","DOI":"10.1093\/jme\/tjx166","article-title":"The citizen science project \u2018Mueckenatlas\u2019 helps monitor the distribution and spread of invasive mosquito species in Germany","volume":"54","author":"Walther","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1111\/jvec.12286","article-title":"Mosquito species composition and phenology (Diptera, Culicidae) in two German zoological gardens imply different risks of mosquito-borne pathogen transmission","volume":"43","author":"Heym","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Vector Ecol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"748","DOI":"10.1177\/104063871002200515","article-title":"Two new real-time quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction assays with unique target sites for the specific and sensitive detection of lineages 1 and 2 West Nile virus strains","volume":"22","author":"Eiden","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Vet. Diagn. Investig."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2011.11-0248","article-title":"Isolation of Usutu virus in Germany","volume":"85","author":"Bialonski","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"847","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-016-5356-z","article-title":"First mass development of Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae) \u2013 its surveillance and control in Germany","volume":"116","author":"Becker","year":"2017","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2016.11.024","article-title":"The invasive Asian tiger mosquito Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae) in Germany: Local reproduction and overwintering","volume":"166","author":"Walther","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2018.08.019","article-title":"The Asian tiger mosquito Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae) in Central Germany: Surveillance in its northernmost distribution area","volume":"188","author":"Kuhlisch","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2097","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-019-06327-5","article-title":"Molecular detection of vector-borne pathogens from mosquitoes collected in two zoological gardens in Germany","volume":"118","author":"Heym","year":"2019","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"FLI (2020, April 28). Weitere Ausbreitung des West-Nil-Virus: F\u00fcnf Infektionen bei Pferden und Erh\u00f6hte Fallzahlen bei V\u00f6geln Festgestellt. Available online: https:\/\/www.fli.de\/de\/presse\/pressemitteilungen\/presse-einzelansicht\/weitere-ausbreitung-des-west-nil-virus-fuenf-infektionen-bei-pferden-und-erhoehte-fallzahlen-bei-voege."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1111\/mve.12251","article-title":"Vector competence of northern and southern European Culex pipiens pipiens mosquitoes for West Nile virus across a gradient of temperatures","volume":"31","author":"Vogels","year":"2017","journal-title":"Med. Vet. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_58","first-page":"521","article-title":"Culex (Culex) molestus Forskal (Diptera: Culicidae): Neotype designation, description, variation, and taxonomic status","volume":"86","author":"Harbach","year":"1984","journal-title":"Proc. Entomol. Soc. Wash."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1535","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1094247","article-title":"Emerging vectors in the Culex pipiens complex","volume":"303","author":"Fonseca","year":"2004","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.2001.tb02699.x","article-title":"Structure and seasonality of Nearctic Culex pipiens populations","volume":"951","author":"Spielman","year":"2001","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kilpatrick, A.M., Kramer, L.D., Jones, M.J., Marra, P.P., and Daszak, P. (2006). West Nile virus epidemics in North America are driven by shifts in mosquito feeding behavior. PLoS Biol., 4.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.0040082"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brugman, V.A., Hern\u00e1ndez-Triana, L.M., Medlock, J.M., Fooks, A.R., Carpenter, S., and Johnson, N. (2008). The role of Culex pipiens L. (Diptera: Culicidae) in virus transmission in Europe. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph15020389"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1103.040364","article-title":"West Nile virus risk assessment and the bridge vector paradigm","volume":"11","author":"Kilpatrick","year":"2005","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/12\/5\/493\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T13:24:04Z","timestamp":1760361844000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/12\/5\/493"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,28]]},"references-count":63,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,5]]}},"alternative-id":["v12050493"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v12050493","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,28]]}}}