{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T16:10:04Z","timestamp":1777479004246,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,28]],"date-time":"2020-06-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1593302400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001691","name":"Japan Society for the Promotion of Science","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["19K16397"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["19K16397"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001691","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Japan Society for the Promotion of Sciences","award":["19K07212"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["19K07212"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), influenza A virus (IAV), and norovirus (NV) are highly contagious pathogens that threaten human health. Here we focused on the antiviral potential of the medicinal herb, Saxifraga spinulosa (SS). Water-soluble extracts of SS were prepared, and their virus-inactivating activity was evaluated against the human virus pathogens SARS-CoV-2 and IAV; we also examined virucidal activity against feline calicivirus and murine norovirus, which are surrogates for human NV. Among our findings, we found that SS-derived gallocatechin gallate compounds were capable of inactivating all viruses tested. Interestingly, a pyrogallol-enriched fraction (Fr 1C) inactivated all viruses more rapidly and effectively than did any of the component compounds used alone. We found that 25 \u00b5g\/mL of Fr 1C inactivated &gt;99.6% of SARS-CoV-2 within 10 s (reduction of \u22652.33 log10 TCID50\/mL). Fr 1C resulted in the disruption of viral genomes and proteins as determined by gel electrophoresis, electron microscopy, and reverse transcription\u2013PCR. Taken together, our results reveal the potential of Fr 1C for development as a novel antiviral disinfectant.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v12070699","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,29]],"date-time":"2020-06-29T05:28:56Z","timestamp":1593408536000},"page":"699","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["Saxifraga spinulosa-Derived Components Rapidly Inactivate Multiple Viruses Including SARS-CoV-2"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1319-2198","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yohei","family":"Takeda","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Center for Global Agromedicine, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, 2-11 Inada, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Toshihiro","family":"Murata","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacognosy, Tohoku Medical and Pharmaceutical University, 4-1-1 Komatsushima, Aoba-ku, Sendai 981-8558, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Dulamjav","family":"Jamsransuren","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, 2-11 Inada, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Keisuke","family":"Suganuma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Center for Global Agromedicine, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, 2-11 Inada, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan"},{"name":"National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Inada, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yuta","family":"Kazami","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, 2-11 Inada, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Javzan","family":"Batkhuu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, National University of Mongolia, P.O.B-617\/46A, Ulaanbaatar 14201, Mongolia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Duger","family":"Badral","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mongolian University of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ulaanbaatar 18130, Mongolia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5889-499X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Haruko","family":"Ogawa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, 2-11 Inada, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2001017","article-title":"A novel coronavirus from patients with pneumonia in China, 2019","volume":"382","author":"Zhu","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2012-7","article-title":"A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin","volume":"579","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2020, June 20). Coronavirus Disease (COVID-2019) Situation Reports. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/emergencies\/diseases\/novel-coronavirus-2019\/situation-reports."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saunders-Hastings, P., and Krewski, D. (2016). Reviewing the history of pandemic influenza: Understanding patterns of emergence and transmission. Pathogens, 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens5040066"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2020, May 21). WHO Estimates of the Global Burden of Foodborne Diseases. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/activities\/estimating-the-burden-of-foodborne-diseases."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"724","DOI":"10.1111\/1469-0691.12722","article-title":"The burden of norovirus gastroenteritis: An important foodborne and healthcare-related infection","volume":"20","author":"Belliot","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1007\/s13670-017-0195-z","article-title":"Norovirus disease in older adults living in long-term care facilities: Strategies for management","volume":"6","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Geriatr. Rep."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1038\/s41422-020-0282-0","article-title":"Remdesivir and chloroquine effectively inhibit the recently emerged novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in vitro","volume":"30","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.02.052","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 cell entry depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and is blocked by a clinically proven protease inhibitor","volume":"181","author":"Hoffmann","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grein, J., Ohmagari, N., Shin, D., Diaz, G., Asperges, E., Castagna, A., Feldt, T., Green, G., Green, M.L., and Lescure, F.-X. (2020). Compassionate use of remdesivir for patients with severe Covid-19. N. Engl. J. Med., in press.","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2007016"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coviro.2014.04.009","article-title":"The epidemiology and spread of drug resistant human influenza viruses","volume":"8","author":"Hurt","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4929","DOI":"10.3390\/v7092850","article-title":"Clinical implications of antiviral resistance in influenza","volume":"7","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kratzel, A., Todt, D., V\u2019kovski, P., Steiner, S., Gultom, M.L., Thao, T.T.N., Ebert, N., Holwerda, M., Steinmann, J., and Niemeyer, D. (2020). Efficient inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 by WHO-recommended hand rub formulations and alcohols. bioRxiv, online ahead of print.","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.03.10.986711"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1186\/1745-6673-3-26","article-title":"Safety evaluation of topical applications of ethanol on the skin and inside the oral cavity","volume":"3","author":"Lachenmeier","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Occup. Med. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2416","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jnatprod.7b00142","article-title":"Flavonoid and galloyl glycosides isolated from Saxifraga spinulosa and their antioxidative and inhibitory activities against species that cause piroplasmosis","volume":"80","author":"Badral","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Nat. Prod."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1177\/095632020501600606","article-title":"In vitro anti-HCV activities of Saxifraga melanocentra and its related polyphenolic compounds","volume":"16","author":"Zuo","year":"2005","journal-title":"Antivir. Chem. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2011.11.017","article-title":"Inactivation of high and low pathogenic avian influenza virus H5 subtypes by copper ions incorporated in zeolite-textile materials","volume":"93","author":"Imai","year":"2012","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1007\/s12560-019-09408-x","article-title":"Antiviral activities of Hibiscus sabdariffa L. tea extract against human influenza A virus rely largely on acidic pH but partially on a low-pH-independent mechanism","volume":"12","author":"Takeda","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Environ. Virol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nao, N., Sato, K., Yamagishi, J., Tahara, M., Nakatsu, Y., Seki, F., Katoh, H., Ohnuma, A., Shirogane, Y., and Hayashi, M. (2019). Consensus and variations in cell line specificity among human metapneumovirus strains. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0215822"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01863914","article-title":"Beitrag zur kollektiven behandlung pharmakologischer reihenversuche","volume":"162","year":"1931","journal-title":"Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch. Exp. Pathol. Pharmakol."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2020, May 21). WHO Manual on Animal Influenza Diagnosis and Surveillance. Available online: https:\/\/apps.who.int\/iris\/bitstream\/handle\/10665\/68026\/WHO_CDS_CSR_NCS_2002.5.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1348-0421.2009.00152.x","article-title":"Development of a broadly reactive nested reverse transcription-PCR assay to detect murine noroviruses, and investigation of the prevalence of murine noroviruses in laboratory mice in Japan","volume":"53","author":"Kitajima","year":"2009","journal-title":"Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1248\/bpb.25.19","article-title":"The contribution of the pyrogallol moiety to the superoxide radical scavenging activity of flavonoids","volume":"25","author":"Furuno","year":"2002","journal-title":"Biol. Pharm. Bull."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1021\/np960040+","article-title":"Natural polyphenols (vegetable tannins) as drugs: Possible modes of action","volume":"59","author":"Haslam","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Nat. Prod."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1059","DOI":"10.1111\/bph.12009","article-title":"Anti-infective properties of epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), a component of green tea","volume":"168","author":"Steinmann","year":"2013","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, J., Xu, Z., and Zheng, W. (2017). A review of the antiviral role of green tea catechins. Molecules, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules22081337"},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"4473","article-title":"Anti-influenza virus effects of catechins: A molecular and clinical review","volume":"23","author":"Ide","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Furushima, D., Ide, K., and Yamada, H. (2018). Effect of tea catechins on influenza infection and the common cold with a focus on epidemiological\/clinical studies. Molecules, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules23071795"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1849","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phytochem.2006.06.020","article-title":"Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG): Chemical and biomedical perspectives","volume":"67","author":"Nagle","year":"2006","journal-title":"Phytochemistry"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1142\/S0219633612500071","article-title":"Exploring the molecular basis of H5N1 hemagglutinin binding with catechins in green tea: A flexible docking and molecular dynamics study","volume":"11","author":"Liu","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Theor. Comput. Chem."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1016\/0166-3542(93)90008-7","article-title":"Inhibition of the infectivity of influenza virus by tea polyphenols","volume":"21","author":"Nakayama","year":"1993","journal-title":"Antiviral Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2005.06.010","article-title":"Antiviral effect of catechins in green tea on influenza virus","volume":"62","author":"Song","year":"2005","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpba.2015.03.014","article-title":"Catechin inhibition of influenza neuraminidase and its molecular basis with mass spectrometry","volume":"111","author":"Downard","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1097\/MJT.0b013e3180a6f9c2","article-title":"Preclinical in vitro activity of QR-435 against influenza a virus as a virucide and in paper masks for prevention of viral transmission","volume":"14","author":"Oxford","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Ther."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ide, K., Yamada, H., and Kawasaki, Y. (2016). Effect of gargling with tea and ingredients of tea on the prevention of influenza infection: A meta-analysis. BMC Public Health, 16.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-016-3083-0"}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/12\/7\/699\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T09:44:11Z","timestamp":1760175851000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/12\/7\/699"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,28]]},"references-count":35,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,7]]}},"alternative-id":["v12070699"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v12070699","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,28]]}}}