{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,13]],"date-time":"2026-02-13T05:40:22Z","timestamp":1770961222341,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":194,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,18]],"date-time":"2020-11-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1605657600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Viral vectors can generate high levels of recombinant protein expression providing the basis for modern vaccine development. A large number of different viral vector expression systems have been utilized for targeting viral surface proteins and tumor-associated antigens. Immunization studies in preclinical animal models have evaluated the elicited humoral and cellular responses and the possible protection against challenges with lethal doses of infectious pathogens or tumor cells. Several vaccine candidates for both infectious diseases and various cancers have been subjected to a number of clinical trials. Human immunization trials have confirmed safe application of viral vectors, generation of neutralizing antibodies and protection against challenges with lethal doses. A special emphasis is placed on COVID-19 vaccines based on viral vectors. Likewise, the flexibility and advantages of applying viral particles, RNA replicons and DNA replicon vectors of self-replicating RNA viruses for vaccine development are presented.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v12111324","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,18]],"date-time":"2020-11-18T07:41:00Z","timestamp":1605685260000},"page":"1324","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":45,"title":["Application of Viral Vectors for Vaccine Development with a Special Emphasis on COVID-19"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Kenneth","family":"Lundstrom","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"PanTherapeutics, CH1095 Lutry, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.1586\/erv.12.38","article-title":"Inactivated virus vaccines from chemistry to prophylaxis: Merits, risks and challenges","volume":"11","author":"Delrue","year":"2012","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"648","DOI":"10.4161\/hv.27464","article-title":"Yeast-expressed recombinant protein of the receptor-binding domain in SARS-CoV spike protein with deglycosylated forms as a SARS vaccine candidate","volume":"10","author":"Chen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hum. Vaccin. Immunother."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.2174\/1566523213666131125095046","article-title":"Adenovirus vectors for gene therapy, vaccines and cancer gene therapy","volume":"13","author":"Wold","year":"2013","journal-title":"Curr. Gene Ther."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lundstrom, K. (2019). RNA viruses as tools in gene therapy and vaccine development. Genes, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/genes10030189"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1038\/ng0298-180","article-title":"Genomic DNA transfer with a high-capacity adenovirus vector results in improved in vivo gene expression and decreased toxicity","volume":"18","author":"Schiedner","year":"1998","journal-title":"Nat. Genet."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1128\/mr.58.3.491-562.1994","article-title":"The alphaviruses: Gene expression, replication and evolution","volume":"58","author":"Strauss","year":"1994","journal-title":"Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1517\/14712598.6.2.135","article-title":"Kunjin virus replicons: An RNA-based, non-cytopathic viral vector system for protein production, vaccine and gene therapy applications","volume":"6","author":"Pijlman","year":"2006","journal-title":"Exp. Opin. Biol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5773","DOI":"10.1002\/j.1460-2075.1995.tb00266.x","article-title":"Rescue of measles viruses from cloned DNA","volume":"14","author":"Radecke","year":"1995","journal-title":"EMBO J."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1583","DOI":"10.1038\/nprot.2013.094","article-title":"Design and generation of recombinant rabies virus vectors","volume":"8","author":"Osakada","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Protoc."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6349","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.81.20.6349","article-title":"High-efficiency gene transfer into mammalian cells: Generation of helper-free recombinant retrovirus with broad mammalian host range","volume":"81","author":"Cone","year":"1984","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20190607","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20190607","article-title":"Gene therapy for severe combined immunodeficiencies and beyond","volume":"217","author":"Fischer","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1002\/1521-2254(200009\/10)2:5<308::AID-JGM131>3.0.CO;2-3","article-title":"Lentiviral vectors: Excellent tools for experimental gene transfer and promising candidates for gene therapy","volume":"2","author":"Vigna","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Gen. Med."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1038\/gt.2014.1","article-title":"An integration-defective lentivirus-based resource for site-specific targeting of an edited safe-harbour locus in the genome","volume":"21","author":"Torres","year":"2014","journal-title":"Gene Ther."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"161","article-title":"Poxviruses as vectors for cancer immunotherapy","volume":"6","author":"Kwak","year":"2003","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Drug Discov. Devel."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.2147\/OV.S56322","article-title":"Applications of coxsackievirus A21 in oncology","volume":"3","author":"Bradley","year":"2014","journal-title":"Oncolytic Virother."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lundstrom, K. (2020). Self-amplifying RNA viruses as RNA vaccines. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21145130"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.3855\/jidc.2171","article-title":"Outbreak of Chikungunya in the Republic of Congo and the global picture","volume":"5","author":"Kelvin","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dev. Ctries."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1080\/01459740.2012.679981","article-title":"The 2005\u20132007 Chikungunya epidemic in Reunion: Ambiguous etiologies, memories, and meaning-making","volume":"32","author":"Jansen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Med. Anthropol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3894","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2018.05.095","article-title":"A recombinant virus vaccine that protects both against Chikungunya and Zika virus infections","volume":"36","author":"Chattopadhyay","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-422X-6-118","article-title":"Improved efficacy of gene optimized adenovirus-based vaccine for Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus","volume":"6","author":"Williams","year":"2009","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12077","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01406-14","article-title":"Combined alphavirus replicon particle vaccine induces durable and cross-protective immune responses against equine encephalitis virus","volume":"88","author":"Reed","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"376","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2006.10.049","article-title":"Alphavirus replicon approach to promoterless analysis of IRES elements","volume":"360","author":"Kamrud","year":"2007","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2019.04.072","article-title":"Novel DNA-launched Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus vaccine with rearranged genome","volume":"37","author":"Tretyakova","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3378","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2020.02.007","article-title":"Venezuelan equine encephalitis vaccine with rearranged genome resists reversion and protects non-human primates from viremia after aerosol challenge","volume":"38","author":"Tretyakova","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Safronetz, D., Mire, C., Rosenke, K., Feldmann, F., Haddock, E., Geissbert, T., and Feldmann, H. (2015). A recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus-based Lassa fever vaccine protects guinea pigs and macaques against challenge with geographically and genetically distinct Lassa viruses. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003736"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1957","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiy123","article-title":"Use of a scalable replicon-particle vaccine to protect against lethal Lassa virus infection in the guinea pig model","volume":"217","author":"Kainulainen","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6824","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2019.09.030","article-title":"Adenoviral vector-based vaccine is fully protective against lethal Lassa fever challenge in Hartley guinea pigs","volume":"37","author":"Maruyama","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaaw3163","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.aaw3163","article-title":"Vaccines inducing immunity to Lassa fever glycoprotein and nucleoprotein protect macaques after a single shot","volume":"11","author":"Mateo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Inc., K.N. (2019). A Trial to Evaluate the Optimal Dose of MV-LASV. Case Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2949","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2020.02.053","article-title":"Bivalent Junin and Machupo experimental vaccine based on alphavirus RNA replicon vector","volume":"38","author":"Johnson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S287","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiy280","article-title":"Ebola virus transmission caused by persistently infected survivors of the 2014-2016 outbreak in West Africa","volume":"218","author":"Subissi","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S368","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiv019","article-title":"A Kunjin replicon virus-like vaccine provides protection against Ebola virus infection in nonhuman primates","volume":"212","author":"Pyankov","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aab3920","article-title":"Ebola vaccine. VSV-EBOV rapidly protects macaques against infection with the 2014\/2015 Ebola virus outbreak strain","volume":"349","author":"Marzi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S1075","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jir349","article-title":"Recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus-based vaccines against Ebola and Marburg infections","volume":"204","author":"Geisbert","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sullivan, N.J., Geisbert, T.W., Geisbert, J.B., Shedlock, D.J., Xu, L., Lamoreaux, L., Custers, J.H.H.V., Popernack, P.M., Yang, Z.-Y., and Pau, M.G. (2006). Immune protection of nonhuman primates against Ebola virus with single low-dose adenovirus vectors encoding modified GPs. PLoS Med., 3.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.0030177"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2008.09.030","article-title":"Chimeric human parainfluenza virus bearing the Ebola virus glycoprotein as the sole surface protein is immunogenic and highly protective against Ebola virus challenge","volume":"383","author":"Bukreyev","year":"2009","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"857","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(15)61117-5","article-title":"Efficacy and effectiveness of an rVSV-vectored vaccine expressing Ebola surface glycoprotein: Interim results from the Guinea ring vaccination cluster-randomised trial","volume":"386","author":"Longini","year":"2015","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(16)32621-6","article-title":"Efficacy and effectiveness of an rVSV-vectored vaccine in preventing Ebola virus disease: Final results from the Guinea ring vaccination, open-label, cluster-randomised trial (Ebola Ca Suffit!)","volume":"389","author":"Camacho","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4852","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.03361-12","article-title":"Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus replicon particle vaccine protects nonhuman primates from intramuscular and aerosol challenge with ebolavirus","volume":"87","author":"Herbert","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4068","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2014.05.053","article-title":"A tetravalent alphavirus-vector based dengue vaccine provides effective immunity in an early life mouse model","volume":"32","author":"Khalil","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"1678","article-title":"The successful induction of T-cell and antibody responses by a recombinant measles virus-vectored tetravalent dengue vaccine provides partial protection against dengue-2 infection","volume":"12","author":"Hu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Hum. Vaccin. Immunother."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1059","DOI":"10.1080\/21645515.2016.1261770","article-title":"Vaccines licensed and in clinical trials for the prevention of dengue","volume":"13","author":"Torresi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Hum. Vaccin. Imunother."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2507","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymthe.2018.07.010","article-title":"A nanostructured lipid carrier for delivery of a replicating viral RNA provides single, low-dose protection against Zika","volume":"26","author":"Erasmus","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"2572","article-title":"Zika vaccine development: Current status","volume":"94","author":"Poland","year":"2019","journal-title":"Them. Rev. Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2001.65.405","article-title":"Attenuation and immunogenicity in humans of a live dengue virus type-4 vaccine candidate with a 30 nucleotide deletion in its 3\u2019-untranslated region","volume":"65","author":"Durbin","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01311300","article-title":"Co-expression of hepatitis B antigens by a non-defective adenovirus vaccine vector","volume":"118","author":"Ye","year":"1991","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10597","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00923-07","article-title":"A vectored measles virus induces hepatitis B surface antigen antibodies while protecting macaques against virus challenge","volume":"81","author":"Devaux","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10407","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01184-15","article-title":"Virus-like vesicle-based therapeutic vaccine vectors for chronic hepatis B virus infection","volume":"89","author":"Reynolds","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"986","DOI":"10.1080\/21645515.2016.1276125","article-title":"Research progress of therapeutic vaccines for treating chronic hepatitis B","volume":"13","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Hum. Vaccin. Immunother."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.1080\/21645515.2019.1651141","article-title":"Safety and immunogenicity of the therapeutic vaccine TG1050 in chronic hepatitis B patients: A phase 1b placebo-controlled trial","volume":"16","author":"Zoulim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hum. Vaccines Immunother."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1959","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.80.4.1959-1964.2006","article-title":"Protection of mice and poultry from lethal HSN1 avian influenza virus through adenovirus-based immunization","volume":"80","author":"Gao","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.2000.0635","article-title":"Influenza virus (A\/HK\/156\/97) hemagglutinin expressed by an alphavirus replicon system protects against lethal infection with Hong Kong-origin H5N1 viruses","volume":"278","author":"Dybing","year":"2000","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1395","DOI":"10.1086\/319857","article-title":"Self-replicative RNA vaccines elicit protection against influenza A virus, respiratory syncytial virus, and a tickborne encephalitis virus","volume":"183","author":"Fleeton","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymthe.2017.11.017","article-title":"Self-amplifying RNA Vaccines Give Equivalent Protection against Influenza to mRNA Vaccines but at Much Lower Doses","volume":"26","author":"Vogel","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1598","DOI":"10.1086\/517614","article-title":"Recombinant modified vaccinia virus Ankara-based vaccine induces protective immunity in mice against infection with influenza virus H5N1","volume":"195","author":"Kreijtz","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1196","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(14)70963-6","article-title":"Safety and immunogenicity of a modified-vaccinia-virus-Ankara-based influenza A H5N1 vaccine: A randomised double-blind phase 1\/2a clinical trial","volume":"14","author":"Kreijtz","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, J., Jaijyan, D.K., Tang, Q., and Zhu, H. (2019). Promising Cytomegalovirus-based vaccine vector induces robust CD8(+) T-cell response. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20184457"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1097\/COH.0000000000000524","article-title":"Human cytomegalovirus-vectored vaccines against HIV","volume":"14","author":"Goonetilleke","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. HIV AIDS"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7663","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.77.13.7663-7668.2003","article-title":"Vaccine-induced immunity in baboons by using DNA and replication-incompetent adenovirus type 5 vectors expressing a human immunodeficiency virus type 1 gag gene","volume":"77","author":"Casimiro","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2009.02.047","article-title":"Live attenuated measles vaccine expressing HIV-1 Gag virus like particles covered with gp160DeltaV1V2 is strongly immunogenic","volume":"388","author":"Guerbois","year":"2009","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1369","DOI":"10.1089\/aid.1998.14.1369","article-title":"Comparative analysis of humoral immune responses to HIV type 1 envelope glycoproteins in mice immunized with a DNA vaccine, recombinant Semliki Forest virus RNA, or recombinant Semliki Forest virus particles","volume":"14","author":"Brand","year":"1998","journal-title":"AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-0934(99)00009-9","article-title":"Generation of monoclonal antibodies to native human immunodeficiency virus type 1 envelope glycoprotein by immunization of mice with naked RNA","volume":"79","author":"Giraud","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Virol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imlet.2017.08.019","article-title":"Immunogenicity of virus-like Semliki Forest virus replicon particles expressing Indian HIV-1C gag, env and pol RT genes","volume":"190","author":"Ajbani","year":"2017","journal-title":"Immunol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Knudsen, M.L., Ljungberg, K., Tatoud, R., Weber, J., Esteban, M., and Liljestrom, P. (2015). Alphavirus replicon DNA expressing HIV antigens is an excellent prime for boosting with recombinant modified vaccinia Ankara (MVA) or with HIV gp140 protein antigen. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0117042"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"947","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiu522","article-title":"Potent immune responses in rhesus macaques induced by nonviral delivery of self-amplifying RNA vaccine expressing HIV type 1 envelope with a cationic emulsion","volume":"211","author":"Bogers","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2080","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymthe.2019.08.007","article-title":"Immunogenicity of RNA Replicons Encoding HIV Env Immunogens Designed for Self-Assembly into Nanoparticles","volume":"27","author":"Melo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"753","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiq119","article-title":"The STEP study provides a hint that vaccine induction of the right CD8+ T cell responses can facilitate immune control of HIV","volume":"203","author":"Altfeld","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20072681","article-title":"The failed HIV Merck vaccine study: A step back or a launching point for future vaccine development?","volume":"205","author":"Sekaly","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3165","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2009.03.049","article-title":"Multimeric soluble CD40 ligand (sCD40L) efficiently enhances HIV specific cellular immune responses during DNA prime and boost with attenuated poxvirus vectors MVA and NYVAC expressing HIV antigens","volume":"27","author":"Esteban","year":"2009","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2209","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa0908492","article-title":"Vaccination with ALVAC and AIDSVAX to prevent HIV-1 infection in Thailand","volume":"361","author":"Pitisuttihum","year":"2009","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"(2020, October 06). Available online: https:\/\/www.pharmaceutical-technology.com\/news\/niaid-hvtn-702-hiv-vaccine-south-africa\/."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3443","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2009.01.055","article-title":"Lentiviral vectors for HIV disease prevention and treatment","volume":"27","author":"Lemiale","year":"2009","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"960","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymthe.2019.03.008","article-title":"Lentiviral-based Dendritic Cell Vaccine Suppresses HIV Replication in Humanized Mice","volume":"27","author":"Norton","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.3109\/08923971003782327","article-title":"Enhancement of the immunogenicity of DNA replicon vaccine of Clostridium botulinum neurotoxin serotype A by GM-CSF gene adjuvant","volume":"33","author":"Li","year":"2011","journal-title":"Immunopharmacol. Immunotoxicol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1038\/gt.2008.181","article-title":"An adenoviral vector-based mucosal vaccine is effective in protection against botulism","volume":"16","author":"Xu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Gene Ther."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-3083.2001.00951.x","article-title":"Comparative immunization study using RNA and DNA constructs encoding a part of the Plasmodium falciparum antigen Pf332","volume":"54","author":"Andersson","year":"2001","journal-title":"Scand. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2818","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2008.03.080","article-title":"Adenovirus 5 and 35 vectors expressing Plasmodium falciparum circumsporozoite surface protein elicit potent antigen-specific cellular IFN-gamma and antibody responses in mice","volume":"26","author":"Shott","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6907","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.72.8.6907-6910.1998","article-title":"Recombinant Sindbis viruses expressing a cytotoxic T-lymphocyte epitope of a malaria parasite or of influenza virus elicit protection against the corresponding pathogen in mice","volume":"72","author":"Tsuji","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.71.1.575-579.2003","article-title":"Enhanced Immunogenicity to Mycobacterium tuberculosis by Vaccination with an Alphavirus Plasmid Replicon Expressing Antigen 85A","volume":"71","author":"Kirman","year":"2003","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1696","DOI":"10.1128\/CVI.00173-09","article-title":"Recombinant Sindbis virus vectors designed to express protective antigen of Bacillus anthracis protect animals from anthrax and display synergy with ciprofloxacin","volume":"16","author":"Thomas","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Vaccine Immunol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"796","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.cgt.7700367","article-title":"Induction of therapeutic antitumor antiangiogenesis by intratumoral injection of genetically engineered endostatin-producing Semliki Forest virus","volume":"8","author":"Yamanaka","year":"2001","journal-title":"Cancer Gene Ther."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"746","DOI":"10.3171\/jns.2003.99.4.0746","article-title":"Induction of an antitumor immunological response by an intratumoral injection of dendritic cells pulsed with genetically engineered Semliki Forest virus to produce interleukin-18 combined with the systemic administration of interleukin-12","volume":"99","author":"Yamanaka","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10637","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01868-15","article-title":"MicroRNA-attenuated clone of virulent Semliki Forest virus overcomes antiviral type I interferon in resistant mouse CT-2A glioma","volume":"89","author":"Martikainen","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2018.06.018","article-title":"Chikungunya-vesicular stomatitis chimeric virus targets and eliminates brain tumors","volume":"522","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.1038\/gt.2012.62","article-title":"Oncolytic measles virus strains have a significant antitumor activity against glioma stem cells","volume":"2","author":"Allen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Gene Ther."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.cgt.7701055","article-title":"Comparison of herpes simplex virus- and conditionally replicative adenovirus-based vectors for glioblastoma treatment","volume":"14","author":"Hoffmann","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cancer Gene Ther."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1419","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2017.75.8219","article-title":"Phase I study of DNX-2401 (Delta-24-RGD) oncolytic adenovirus; Replication and immunotherapeutic effects in recurrent malignant glioma","volume":"36","author":"Lang","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"BSR20190384","DOI":"10.1042\/BSR20190384","article-title":"Inhibition of breast cancer cells by targeting E2F-1 gene and expressing IL-15 oncolytic adenovirus","volume":"39","author":"Yan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biosci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiotec.2019.05.016","article-title":"Evaluation of AAV-mediated delivery of shRNA to target basal-like breast cancer genetic vulnerabilities","volume":"300","author":"Pinto","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"840","DOI":"10.1038\/gt.2015.52","article-title":"Treatment of multifocal breast cancer by systemic delivery of dual-targeted adeno-associated viral vectors","volume":"22","author":"Trepel","year":"2015","journal-title":"Gene Ther."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R580","DOI":"10.1186\/bcr1199","article-title":"Prime-boost vaccination with plasmid and adenovirus gene vaccines control HER2\/neu+ metastatic breast cancer in mice","volume":"7","author":"Wang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Breast Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.cgt.7700300","article-title":"DNA vaccination against neu reduces breast cancer incidence and metastasis in mice","volume":"8","author":"Lachman","year":"2001","journal-title":"Cancer Gene Ther."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"568","DOI":"10.1007\/s10637-010-9614-0","article-title":"Enhanced oncolysis mediated by Coxsackievirus A21 in combination with doxorubicin hydrochloride","volume":"30","author":"Skelding","year":"2012","journal-title":"Investig. New Drugs"},{"key":"ref_94","first-page":"599","article-title":"Phase I dose-escalation clinical trial of HF10 oncolytic herpes virus in 17 Japanese patients with advanced cancer","volume":"61","author":"Kasuya","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hepatogastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_95","first-page":"7861","article-title":"Eradication of established tumors by vaccination with Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus replicon particles delivering human papillomavirus 16 E7 RNA","volume":"61","author":"Velders","year":"2001","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1082","DOI":"10.1016\/S0264-410X(02)00558-3","article-title":"Eradication of established HPV16-transformed tumours after immunisation with recombinant Semliki Forest virus expressing a fusion protein of E6 and E7","volume":"21","author":"Daemen","year":"2000","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1487913","DOI":"10.1080\/2162402X.2018.1487913","article-title":"Potent therapeutic efficacy of an alphavirus replicon DNA vaccine expressing human papilloma virus E6 and E7 antigens","volume":"7","author":"Ljungberg","year":"2018","journal-title":"Oncoimmunology"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105096","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejps.2019.105096","article-title":"GMP manufacturing of Vvax001, a therapeutic anti-HPV vaccine based on recombinant viral particles","volume":"143","author":"Schoemaker","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, A., Farmer, E., Wu, T.C., and Hung, C.-F. (2016). Perspectives for therapeutic HPV vaccine development. J. Biomed. Sci., 75.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12929-016-0293-9"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1523","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(96)90674-1","article-title":"A recombinant vaccinia virus encoding human papillomavirus types 16 and 18, E6 and E7 proteins as immunotherapy for cervical cancer","volume":"347","author":"Borysiewicz","year":"1996","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1035","DOI":"10.1089\/hum.2014.024","article-title":"Regression of human papillomavirus intraepithelial lesions is induced by MVA E2 therapeutic vaccine","volume":"25","author":"Rosales","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hum. Gene Ther."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1038\/gt.2008.169","article-title":"A Kunjin replicon vector encoding granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor for intra-tumoral gene therapy","volume":"16","author":"Smeenk","year":"2009","journal-title":"Gene Ther."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.gt.3302889","article-title":"Inhibition of angiogenesis by a Semliki Forest virus vector expressing VEGFR-2 reduces tumour growth and metastasis in mice","volume":"14","author":"Lyons","year":"2007","journal-title":"Gene Ther."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"823","DOI":"10.1038\/10548","article-title":"Cancer therapy using a self-replicating RNA vaccine","volume":"5","author":"Ying","year":"1999","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.omto.2017.08.003","article-title":"Cowpox virus: A new and armed oncolytic poxvirus","volume":"7","author":"Ricordel","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Ther. Oncolytics"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"953","DOI":"10.2217\/imt-2019-0055","article-title":"Impact of synchronized anti-PD-1 with Ad-CEA vaccination on inhibition of colon cancer growth","volume":"11","author":"Sun","year":"2019","journal-title":"Immunotherapy"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1492","DOI":"10.1038\/mt.2016.101","article-title":"Phase I study of intravenous oncolytic poxvirus (vvDD) in patients with advanced solid cancers","volume":"24","author":"Guo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v9.i3.495","article-title":"Application of autologous tumor cell vaccine and NDV vaccine in treatment of tumors of digestive tract","volume":"9","author":"Liang","year":"2003","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1477","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.gt.3301263","article-title":"Inhibition of human lung carcinoma cell growth by apoptosis induction using Semliki Forest virus recombinant particles","volume":"7","author":"Murphy","year":"2000","journal-title":"Gene Ther."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1704","DOI":"10.1002\/ijc.23646","article-title":"Replication competent Semliki Forest virus prolongs survival in experimental lung cancer","volume":"123","author":"Ketola","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1038\/mt.2013.215","article-title":"Sindbis viral vectors transiently deliver tumor-associated antigens to lymph nodes and elicit diversified antitumor CD8+ T-cell immunity","volume":"22","author":"Granot","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33165","DOI":"10.18632\/oncotarget.5320","article-title":"Vesicular stomatitis virus expressing interferon-\u03b2 is oncolytic and promotes antitumor immune responses in a syngeneic murine model of non-small cell lung cancer","volume":"6","author":"Patel","year":"2015","journal-title":"Oncotarget"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1101","DOI":"10.1097\/JTO.0000000000000214","article-title":"Measles vaccine strains for virotherapy of non-small cell lung carcinoma","volume":"9","author":"Patel","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Thorac. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1186\/s40425-017-0274-x","article-title":"Viral based vaccine TG4010 induces broadening of specific immune response and improves outcome in advanced NSCLC","volume":"5","author":"Tosch","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Immunother. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9197","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.74.19.9197-9205.2000","article-title":"Recombinant yellow fever viruses are effective therapeutic vaccines for treatment of murine solid tumors and pulmonary metastases","volume":"74","author":"McAllister","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Avogadri, F., Merghoub, T., Maughan, M.F., Hirschhorn-Cymerman, D., Morris, J., and Ritter, E. (2010). Alphavirus replicon particles expressing TRP-2 provide potent therapeutic effect on melanoma through activation of humoral and cellular immunity. PLoS ONE, 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0012670"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"448","DOI":"10.1158\/2326-6066.CIR-13-0220","article-title":"Combination of alphavirus replicon particle-based vaccination with immunomodulatory antibodies: Therapeutic activity in the B16 melanoma mouse model and immune correlates","volume":"2","author":"Avogadri","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cancer Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2015.08.003","article-title":"Synergistic antitumor efficacy of combined DNA vaccines targeting tumor cells and angiogenesis","volume":"465","author":"Yin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ammour, Y., Ryabaya, O., Shchetinina, Y., Prokofeva, E., Gavrilova, M., Khochenkov, D., Vorobyev, D., Faizuloev, E., Shohin, I., and Zverev, V.V. (2020). The Susceptibility of Human Melanoma Cells to Infection with the Leningrad-16 Vaccine Strain of Measles Virus. Viruses, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/v12020173"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kimpel, J., Urbiola, C., Koske, I., Tober, R., Banki, Z., and Wollmann, G. (2018). The Oncolytic virus VSV-GP is effective against malignant melanoma. Viruses, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/v10030108"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.7785\/tcrt.2012.500414","article-title":"Recombinant newcastle disease virus expressing IL15 demonstrates promising antitumor efficiency in melanoma model","volume":"14","author":"Niu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Technol. Cancer Res. Treat."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1158\/1078-0432.CCR-0690-3","article-title":"Systemic therapy of malignant human melanoma tumors by a common cold-producing enterovirus, Coxsackievirus A21","volume":"10","author":"Shafren","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hromic-Jahjefendic, A., and Lundstrom, K. (2020). Viral vector-based melanoma gene therapy. Biomedicines, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines8030060"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2619","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2016.67.1529","article-title":"Talimogene laherparepvec in combination with ipilimumab in previously untreated, unresectable stage IIIB-IV melanoma","volume":"34","author":"Puzanov","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4169","DOI":"10.1245\/s10434-016-5286-0","article-title":"Patterns of clinical response with talimogene laherparepvec (T-VEC) in patients with melanoma treated in the OPTiM phase III clinical trial","volume":"23","author":"Andtbacka","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ann. Surg Oncol."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s40257-016-0238-9","article-title":"Talimogene laherparepvec (T-VEC) and other oncolytic viruses for the treatment of melanoma","volume":"18","author":"Bommareddy","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1998","DOI":"10.1038\/mt.2012.146","article-title":"Phase II trial of intravenous administration of Reolysin\u00ae (Reovirus Serotype-3-dearing Strain) in patients with metastatic melanoma","volume":"20","author":"Galanis","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"CT026","DOI":"10.1158\/1538-7445.AM2017-CT026","article-title":"Abstract CT026: Phase 1b study of intratumoral Coxsackievirus A21 (CVA21) and systemic pembrolizumab in advanced melanoma patients: Interim results of the CAPRA clinical trial","volume":"77","author":"Silk","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"P343","DOI":"10.1186\/2051-1426-3-S2-P343","article-title":"Phase II calm extension study: Coxsackievirus A21 delivered intratumorally to patients with advanced melanoma induces immune-cell infiltration in the tumor microenvironment","volume":"3","author":"Andtbacka","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Immunother. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"P9030","DOI":"10.1200\/jco.2015.33.15_suppl.9030","article-title":"Final data from CALM: A phase II study of Coxsackievirus A21 (CVA21) oncolytic virus immunotherapy in patients with advanced melanoma","volume":"33","author":"Andtbacka","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"783","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03401771","article-title":"A 15-year follow-up of AJJC stage III malignant melanoma patients treated postsurgically with Newcastle disease virus (NDV) oncolysate and determination of alterations in the CD8 T cell repertoire","volume":"4","author":"Batliwalla","year":"1998","journal-title":"Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16021","DOI":"10.1038\/mto.2016.21","article-title":"Application of interferon modulators to overcome partial resistance to ovarian cancers to VSV-GP oncolytic viral therapy","volume":"3","author":"Dold","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol. Ther Oncolytics"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6170","DOI":"10.1158\/1078-0432.CCR-06-0992","article-title":"The use of a tropism-modified measles virus in folate receptor-targeted virotherapy of ovarian cancer","volume":"12","author":"Hasegawa","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"588","DOI":"10.1038\/cgt.2012.33","article-title":"The role of natural killer cells in combinatorial anti-cancer therapy using Sindbis viral vector and irinotecan","volume":"19","author":"Granot","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cancer Gene Ther."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"692","DOI":"10.1038\/mt.2009.318","article-title":"Enhancing the therapeutic effect against ovarian cancer through a combination of viral oncolysis and antigen-specific immunotherapy","volume":"18","author":"Zhang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_136","unstructured":"(2020, September 12). Sirolimus and Vaccine Therapy in Treating Patients with Stage II-IV Ovarian Epithelial, Fallopian Tube, or Primary Peritoneal Cavity Cancer, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT02833506."},{"key":"ref_137","unstructured":"(2020, September 12). Vaccine Therapy in Stage II, III, or IV Epithelial Ovarian, Fallopian Tube, or Primary Peritoneal Cancers, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT00803569."},{"key":"ref_138","unstructured":"(2020, September 12). Vaccine Therapy in Patients with Stage II, III, or IV Epithelial Ovarian, Fallopian Tube, or Peritoneal Cancer, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT00112957."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7486","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-03-1296","article-title":"Adeno-associated viral vector-mediated expression of endostatin inhibits tumor growth and metastasis in an orthotropic pancreatic cancer model in hamsters","volume":"64","author":"Noro","year":"2004","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_140","first-page":"3599","article-title":"A tumor-targeting adenovirus with high gene-transduction efficiency for primary pancreatic cancer and ascites cells","volume":"37","author":"Nagasato","year":"2017","journal-title":"Anticancer Res."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3073","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.05640-11","article-title":"Vesicular stomatitis virus as an oncolytic agent against pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma","volume":"86","author":"Murphy","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1647","DOI":"10.1111\/cas.13064","article-title":"Measles virus selectively blind to signaling lymphocyte activity molecule has oncolytic efficacy against nectin-4 expressing pancreatic cells","volume":"107","author":"Awano","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cancer Sci."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-018-1483-x","article-title":"Novel oncolytic chimeric orthopoxvirus causes regression of pancreatic cancer xenografts and exhibits abscopal effect at a single low dose","volume":"16","author":"Choi","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hirooka, Y., Kasuya, H., Ishikawa, T., Kawashima, H., Ohno, E., Villalobos, I., Naoe, Y., Ichinose, T., Koyama, N., and Tanaka, M. (2018). A phase I clinical trial of EUS-guided intratumoral injection of the oncolytic virus, HF10 for unresectable locally advanced pancreatic cancer. BMC Cancer, 18.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12885-018-4453-z"},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3234","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI42672","article-title":"An alphavirus vector overcomes the presence of neutralizing antibodies and elevated numbers of Tregs to induce immune responses in humans with advanced cancer","volume":"120","author":"Morse","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1002\/pros.20857","article-title":"Engineered measles virus as a novel oncolytic therapy against prostate cancer","volume":"69","author":"Msaouel","year":"2009","journal-title":"Prostate"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3999","DOI":"10.1158\/1078-0432.CCR-06-2202","article-title":"A novel alphavirus vaccine encoding prostate-specific membrane antigen elicits potent cellular and humoral immune responses","volume":"13","author":"Durso","year":"2007","journal-title":"Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1344","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-06-2996","article-title":"In vivo effects of vaccination with six-transmembrane epithelial antigen of the prostate: A candidate antigen for treating prostate cancer","volume":"67","author":"Gray","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"861","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-07-0445","article-title":"Prostate stem cell antigen vaccination induces a long-term protective immune response against prostate cancer in the absence of autoimmunity","volume":"68","author":"Gray","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1786","DOI":"10.1002\/ijc.31556","article-title":"Oncolytic activity of the rhabdovirus VSV-GP against prostate cancer","volume":"143","author":"Urbiola","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1080\/07357907.2018.1434539","article-title":"Combination of Vaccine-Strain Measles and Mumps Viruses Enhances Oncolytic Activity against Human Solid Malignancies","volume":"7","author":"Son","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cancer Investig."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"943","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2012.11.096","article-title":"A phase I dose escalation trial of vaccine replicon particles (VRP) expressing prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) in subjects with prostate cancer","volume":"31","author":"Slovin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7375","DOI":"10.1158\/1078-0432.CCR-09-1910","article-title":"Phase I clinical trial of an adenovirus\/prostate-specific antigen vaccine for prostate cancer: Safety and immunologic results","volume":"15","author":"Lubaroff","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1053\/j.seminoncol.2012.02.010","article-title":"Clinical evaluation of TRICOM vector therapeutic cancer vaccines","volume":"39","author":"Madan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Semin Oncol."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1099","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2009.25.0597","article-title":"Overall Survival Analysis of a Phase II Randomized Controlled Trial of a Poxviral-Based PSA-Targeted Immunotherapy in Metastatic Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer","volume":"28","author":"Kantoff","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.1007\/s00262-009-0782-8","article-title":"Immunologic and prognostic factors associated with overall survival employing a poxviral-based PSA vaccine in metastatic castrate resistant prostate cancer","volume":"59","author":"Gulley","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cancer Immunol, Immunother."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1051","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.18.02031","article-title":"Phase III Trial of PROSTVAC in asymptomatic or minimally symptomatic metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer","volume":"37","author":"Gulley","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"884","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2019.00884","article-title":"Past, current, and future of immunotherapies for prostate cancer","volume":"9","author":"Boettcher","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lundstrom, K. (2020). The current status of COVID-19 vaccines. Front. Genome Ed.","DOI":"10.3389\/fgeed.2020.579297"},{"key":"ref_160","unstructured":"(2020, November 03). Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/publications\/m\/item\/draft-landscape-of-covid-19-candidate-vaccines."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Folegatti, P.M., Bellamy, D., Roberts, R., Powlson, J., Edwards, N.J., Mair, C.F., Bowyer, G., Poulton, I., Mitton, C.H., and Green, N. (2019). Safety and immunogenicity of a novel recombinant simian Adenovirus ChAdOx2 as a vectored vaccine. Vaccines, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines7020040"},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"578","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2608-y","article-title":"ChAdOx1 nCov-19 vaccination prevents SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia in rhesus macaques","volume":"586","author":"Lambe","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4207","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-18077-5","article-title":"An adenovirus-vectored COVID-19 vaccine confers protection from SARS-CoV-2 challenge in rhesus macaques","volume":"11","author":"Feng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tostanoski, L.H., Wegmann, F., Martinot, A.J., Loos, C., McMahan, K., Mercado, N.B., Yu, J., Chan, C.N., Bondoc, S., and Starke, C.E. (2020). Ad26 vaccine protects against SARS-CoV-2 severe clinical disease in hamsters. Nat. Med.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-020-1070-6"},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mercado, N.N.B., Zahn, R., Wegmann, F., Loos, C., Chandrashekar, A., Yu, J., Liu, J., Peter, L., McMahan, K., and Tostanoski, H. (2020). Single-shot Ad26 vaccine protects against SARS-CoV-2 in rhesus macaques. Nature.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2607-z"},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"H\u00f6rner, C., Sch\u00fcrmann, C., Auste, A., Ebenig, A., Muraleedharan, S., Herrmann, M., Schnierle, B.S., and M\u00fchlebach, M.D. (2020). A Highly Immunogenic Measles Virus-based Th1-biased COVID-19 Vaccine. bioRxiv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.07.11.198291"},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1959","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.01959","article-title":"Combating COVID-19: MVA vector vaccines applied to the respiratory tract as promising toward protective immunity in the lung","volume":"11","author":"Fleige","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chiuppesi, F., d\u2019Alincourt Salazar, M., Contreras, H., Nguyen, V.H., Martinez, J., Park, S., Nguyen, J., Kha, M., Iniguez, A., and Zhou, Q. (2020). Development of a synthetic poxvirus-based SARS-CoV-2 vaccine. bioRxiv, Preprint.","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.07.01.183236"},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1845","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)31208-3","article-title":"Safety, tolerability, and immunogenicity of a recombinant adenovirus type-5 vectored COVID-19 vaccine: A dose-escalation, open label, non-randomised, first-in-human trial","volume":"395","author":"Zhu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)31605-6","article-title":"Immunogenicity and safety of a recombinant adenovirus type-5-vectored COVID-19 vaccine in healthy adults aged 18 years and older: A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 2 trial","volume":"396","author":"Zhu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_171","unstructured":"(2020, November 05). Phase III Trial of A COVID-19 Vaccine of Adenovirus Vector in Adults 18 Years Old, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT04526990."},{"key":"ref_172","unstructured":"(2020, November 05). Clinical Trial of Recombinant Novel Coronavirus Vaccine (Adenovirus Type 5 Vector) Against COVID-19, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT04540419."},{"key":"ref_173","unstructured":"(2020, November 05). A Study of Ad26.COV2.S in Adults (COVID-19), Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT04436276."},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sadoff, J., Le Gars, M., Shukarev, G., Heerwegh, D., Truyers, C., de Marit Groot, A., Stoop, J., Tete, S., Van Damme, W., and Leroux-Roels, I. (2020). Safety and immunogenicity of the Ad26.COV.S COVID-19 vaccine candidate: Interim results of a phase 1\/2a, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. medRxiv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.09.23.20199604"},{"key":"ref_175","unstructured":"(2020, November 05). A Study of Ad26.COV2.S for the Prevention of SARS-CoV-2-Mediated COVID-19 in Adult Participants (ENSEMBLE), Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT04505722."},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1038\/d41586-020-02386-2","article-title":"Russia\u2019s fast-track coronavirus vaccine draws outrage over safety","volume":"584","author":"Callaway","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"887","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)31866-3","article-title":"Safety and immunogenicity of an rAd26 and rAd5 vector-based heterologous prime-boost COVID-19 vaccine in two formulations: Two open, non-randomised phase 1\/2 studies from Russia","volume":"396","author":"Logunov","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_178","unstructured":"(2020, November 05). Clinical Trial of Efficacy, Safety, and Immunogenicity of Gam-COVID-Vac Vaccine against COVID-19 (RESIST), Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT04530396."},{"key":"ref_179","unstructured":"(2020, November 05). Clinical Trial of Efficacy, Safety, and Immunogenicity of Gam-COVID-Vac Vaccine against COVID-19 in Belarus, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT04564716."},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)31604-4","article-title":"Safety and immunogenicity of the ChAsOx1 nCoV-19 vaccine against SARS-CoV-2: A preliminary report of a phase 1\/2 single-blind, randomised controlled trial","volume":"396","author":"Folegatti","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_181","unstructured":"(2020, November 05). Phase III Double-blind, Placebo-controlled Study of AZD1222 for the Prevention of COVID-19 in Adults, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT04516746."},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Phillips, N., Cyranoski, D., and Mallapaty, S. (2020). A leading coronavirus vaccine trial is on hold: Scientists react. Nature.","DOI":"10.1038\/d41586-020-02594-w"},{"key":"ref_183","unstructured":"(2020, November 05). Global Clinical Trials of COVID-19 Vaccine Resume. Available online: https:\/\/www.ox.ac.uk\/news\/2020-11-23-global-clinical-trials-covid-19-vaccine-resume."},{"key":"ref_184","unstructured":"(2020, November 05). Safety, Tolerability and Immunogenicity of the Candidate Vaccine MVA-SARS-2-S against COVID-19, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT04569383."},{"key":"ref_185","unstructured":"(2020, November 05). Immunity and Safety of Covid-19 Synthetic Minigene Vaccine, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT04276896."},{"key":"ref_186","unstructured":"(2020, November 05). Clinical Trial to Evaluate the Safety and Immunogenicity of the COVID-19 Vaccine (COVID-19-101), Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT04497298."},{"key":"ref_187","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2020.07.018","article-title":"Replication-Competent Vesicular Stomatitis Virus Vaccine Vector Protects against SARS-CoV-2-Mediated Pathogenesis in Mice","volume":"28","author":"Brett","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_188","unstructured":"(2020, November 05). Dose Ranging Trial to Assess Safety and Immunogenicity of V590 (COVID-19 Vaccine) in Healthy Adults (V590-001), Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT04569786."},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yahalom-Ronen, Y., Tamir, H., Melamed, S., Politi, B., Shifman, O., Achdout, H., Vitner, E.B., Israeli, O., Milrot, E., and Stein, D. (2020). A single dose of recombinant VSV-\u0394G-spike provides protection against SARS-CoV-2 challenge. bioRxiv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.06.18.160655"},{"key":"ref_190","unstructured":"(2020, November 05). Evaluate the Safety, Immunogenicity and Potential Efficacy of an rVSV-SARS-CoV-2-S Vaccine, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT04608305."},{"key":"ref_191","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"682","DOI":"10.1177\/0194599820933170","article-title":"Intranasal Antiviral Drug Delivery and Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): A State of the Art Review","volume":"163","author":"Higgins","year":"2020","journal-title":"Otolaryngol. -Head Neck Surg."},{"key":"ref_192","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"King, R., Silva-Sanchez, A., Peel, J.N., Botta, D., Meza-Perez, S., Allie, R., Schultz, M.D., Liu, M., Bradley, J.E., and Qiu, S. (2020). Single-dose intranasal administration of AdCOVID elicits systemic and mucosal immunity against SARS-CoV-2 in mice. bioRxiv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.10.10.331348"},{"key":"ref_193","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.03.011","article-title":"A vaccine against Ebola virus","volume":"181","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_194","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"839","DOI":"10.1080\/21645515.2017.1412896","article-title":"Talimogene laherparepvec: First in class oncolytic virotherapy","volume":"14","author":"Conry","year":"2018","journal-title":"Hum. Vaccin. Immunother."}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/12\/11\/1324\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T10:33:44Z","timestamp":1760178824000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/12\/11\/1324"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,18]]},"references-count":194,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,11]]}},"alternative-id":["v12111324"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v12111324","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,18]]}}}