{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,27]],"date-time":"2026-09-27T09:44:24Z","timestamp":1790502264226,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,24]],"date-time":"2020-11-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1606176000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001665","name":"Agence Nationale de la Recherche","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["ANR-14-EBOL-003-01"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ANR-14-EBOL-003-01"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001665","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Organisation Mondiale de la Sant\u00e9 Animale","award":["EBO-SURSY"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EBO-SURSY"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Based on a large study conducted on wild great ape fecal samples collected in regions of Gabon where previous human outbreaks of Ebola virus disease have occurred between 1994 and 2002, we provide evidence for prevalence of Zaire ebolavirus (EBOV)-specific antibodies of 3.9% (immunoglobulin G (IgG)) and 3.5% (immunoglobulin M (IgM)) in chimpanzees and 8.8% (IgG) and 2.4% (IgM) in gorillas. Importantly, we observed a high local prevalence (31.2%) of anti-EBOV IgG antibodies in gorilla samples. This high local rate of positivity among wild great apes raises the question of a spatially and temporally localized increase in EBOV exposure risk and the role that can be played by these animals as sentinels of the virus\u2019s spread or reemergence in a given area.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v12121347","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,24]],"date-time":"2020-11-24T09:06:28Z","timestamp":1606208788000},"page":"1347","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Detection of Ebola Virus Antibodies in Fecal Samples of Great Apes in Gabon"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Illich M.","family":"Mombo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"D\u00e9partement de Virologie, Centre International de Recherches M\u00e9dicales de Franceville, Franceville BP769, Gabon"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4112-3755","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matthieu","family":"Fritz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institut de Recherche pour le D\u00e9veloppement (IRD), Maladies Infectieuses et Vecteurs: Ecologie, G\u00e9n\u00e9tique, Evolution et Contr\u00f4le (MIVEGEC) (IRD 224\u2014CNRS 5290\u2014Universit\u00e9 de Montpellier), BP 64501 Montpellier, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pierre","family":"Becquart","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institut de Recherche pour le D\u00e9veloppement (IRD), Maladies Infectieuses et Vecteurs: Ecologie, G\u00e9n\u00e9tique, Evolution et Contr\u00f4le (MIVEGEC) (IRD 224\u2014CNRS 5290\u2014Universit\u00e9 de Montpellier), BP 64501 Montpellier, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1048-0661","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Florian","family":"Liegeois","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institut de Recherche pour le D\u00e9veloppement (IRD), Maladies Infectieuses et Vecteurs: Ecologie, G\u00e9n\u00e9tique, Evolution et Contr\u00f4le (MIVEGEC) (IRD 224\u2014CNRS 5290\u2014Universit\u00e9 de Montpellier), BP 64501 Montpellier, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eric","family":"Elguero","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institut de Recherche pour le D\u00e9veloppement (IRD), Maladies Infectieuses et Vecteurs: Ecologie, G\u00e9n\u00e9tique, Evolution et Contr\u00f4le (MIVEGEC) (IRD 224\u2014CNRS 5290\u2014Universit\u00e9 de Montpellier), BP 64501 Montpellier, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9551-3017","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Larson","family":"Boundenga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"D\u00e9partement de Virologie, Centre International de Recherches M\u00e9dicales de Franceville, Franceville BP769, Gabon"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Telstar N.","family":"Mebaley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"D\u00e9partement de Virologie, Centre International de Recherches M\u00e9dicales de Franceville, Franceville BP769, Gabon"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Franck","family":"Prugnolle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institut de Recherche pour le D\u00e9veloppement (IRD), Maladies Infectieuses et Vecteurs: Ecologie, G\u00e9n\u00e9tique, Evolution et Contr\u00f4le (MIVEGEC) (IRD 224\u2014CNRS 5290\u2014Universit\u00e9 de Montpellier), BP 64501 Montpellier, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gael D.","family":"Maganga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"D\u00e9partement de Virologie, Centre International de Recherches M\u00e9dicales de Franceville, Franceville BP769, Gabon"},{"name":"Institut National Sup\u00e9rieur d\u2019Agronomie et de Biotechnologies (INSAB), Universit\u00e9 des Sciences et Techniques de Masuku (USTM), Franceville BP913, Gabon"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eric M.","family":"Leroy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institut de Recherche pour le D\u00e9veloppement (IRD), Maladies Infectieuses et Vecteurs: Ecologie, G\u00e9n\u00e9tique, Evolution et Contr\u00f4le (MIVEGEC) (IRD 224\u2014CNRS 5290\u2014Universit\u00e9 de Montpellier), BP 64501 Montpellier, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1084","DOI":"10.1038\/s41564-018-0227-2","article-title":"The discovery of Bombali virus adds further support for bats as hosts of ebolaviruses","volume":"3","author":"Goldstein","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"WHO (1978). Ebola haemorrhagic fever in Zaire, 1976. Bull. World Health Organ., 56, 271\u2013293."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"936","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(18)33132-5","article-title":"Ebola virus disease","volume":"393","author":"Malvy","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S120","DOI":"10.1086\/514296","article-title":"Ebola virus outbreak among wild chimpanzees living in a rain forest of Cote d\u2019Ivoire","volume":"179","author":"Formenty","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1271","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(95)90925-7","article-title":"Isolation and partial characterisation of a new strain of Ebola virus","volume":"345","author":"Formenty","year":"1995","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"664","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1992.46.664","article-title":"Outbreak of fatal illness among captive macaques in the Philippines caused by an Ebola-related filovirus","volume":"46","author":"Hayes","year":"1992","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1016\/0140-6736(91)91199-5","article-title":"Seroepidemiological study of filovirus related to Ebola in the Philippines","volume":"337","author":"Miranda","year":"1991","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"3553","article-title":"Is the Bombali virus pathogenic in humans?","volume":"35","author":"Martell","year":"2019","journal-title":"Bioinformatics (Oxf. Engl.)"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1102.040533","article-title":"Wild animal mortality monitoring and human Ebola outbreaks, Gabon and Republic of Congo, 2001\u20132003","volume":"11","author":"Rouquet","year":"2005","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1564","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1133105","article-title":"Ebola outbreak killed 5000 gorillas","volume":"314","author":"Bermejo","year":"2006","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1038\/nature01566","article-title":"Catastrophic ape decline in western equatorial Africa","volume":"422","author":"Walsh","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trstmh.2006.07.002","article-title":"Morbidity and mortality of wild animals in relation to outbreaks of Ebola haemorrhagic fever in Gabon, 1994\u20132003","volume":"101","author":"Lahm","year":"2007","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S65","DOI":"10.1086\/514290","article-title":"Ebola hemorrhagic fever outbreaks in Gabon, 1994\u20131997: Epidemiologic and health control issues","volume":"179","author":"Georges","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1092528","article-title":"Multiple Ebola virus transmission events and rapid decline of central African wildlife","volume":"303","author":"Leroy","year":"2004","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2083","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1411099","article-title":"Ebola virus disease in the Democratic Republic of Congo","volume":"371","author":"Maganga","year":"2014","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1038\/438575a","article-title":"Fruit bats as reservoirs of Ebola virus","volume":"438","author":"Leroy","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S176","DOI":"10.1086\/520541","article-title":"Spatial and temporal patterns of Zaire ebolavirus antibody prevalence in the possible reservoir bat species","volume":"196","author":"Pourrut","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1599","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiz006","article-title":"Extensive Serological Survey of Multiple African Nonhuman Primate Species Reveals Low Prevalence of Immunoglobulin G Antibodies to 4 Ebola Virus Species","volume":"220","author":"Ayouba","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1895","DOI":"10.1086\/425421","article-title":"A serological survey of Ebola virus infection in central African nonhuman primates","volume":"190","author":"Leroy","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jegh.2018.05.001","article-title":"Serological Detection of Ebola Virus Exposures in Native Non-human Primates of Southern Nigeria","volume":"8","author":"Ogunro","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Epidemiol. Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reed, P.E., Mulangu, S., Cameron, K.N., Ondzie, A.U., Joly, D., Bermejo, M., Rouquet, P., Fabozzi, G., Bailey, M., and Shen, Z. (2014). A new approach for monitoring ebolavirus in wild great apes. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003143"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2210","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(00)02405-3","article-title":"Human asymptomatic Ebola infection and strong inflammatory response","volume":"355","author":"Leroy","year":"2000","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-015-0622-6","article-title":"Diversity of malaria parasites in great apes in Gabon","volume":"14","author":"Boundenga","year":"2015","journal-title":"Malar. J."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mombo, I.M., Lukashev, A.N., Bleicker, T., Brunink, S., Berthet, N., Maganga, G.D., Durand, P., Arnathau, C., Boundenga, L., and Ngoubangoye, B. (2017). African Non-Human Primates Host Diverse Enteroviruses. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0169067"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Towner, J.S., Sealy, T.K., Khristova, M.L., Albarino, C.G., Conlan, S., Reeder, S.A., Quan, P.L., Lipkin, W.I., Downing, R., and Tappero, J.W. (2008). Newly discovered ebola virus associated with hemorrhagic fever outbreak in Uganda. PLoS Pathog., 4.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1000212"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6497","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00069-06","article-title":"Marburgvirus genomics and association with a large hemorrhagic fever outbreak in Angola","volume":"80","author":"Towner","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01979-16","article-title":"Development of a Sensitive and Specific Serological Assay Based on Luminex Technology for Detection of Antibodies to Zaire Ebola Virus","volume":"55","author":"Ayouba","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"R Development Core Team (2018). R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing, R Foundation for Statistical Computing."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1126531","article-title":"Chimpanzee reservoirs of pandemic and nonpandemic HIV-1","volume":"313","author":"Keele","year":"2006","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"712","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(02)07796-6","article-title":"Re-emergence of ebola haemorrhagic fever in Gabon","volume":"359","author":"Leroy","year":"2002","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4997","DOI":"10.3390\/v7092855","article-title":"High Rate of Simian Immunodeficiency Virus (SIV) Infections in Wild Chimpanzees in Northeastern Gabon","volume":"7","author":"Boue","year":"2015","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1017\/S0030605303000802","article-title":"Ebola and the decline of gorilla Gorilla gorilla and chimpanzee Pan troglodytes populations in Minkebe Forest, north-eastern Gabon","volume":"37","author":"Huijbregts","year":"2003","journal-title":"Oryx"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alexander, K.A., Sanderson, C.E., Marathe, M., Lewis, B.L., Rivers, C.M., Shaman, J., Drake, J.M., Lofgren, E., Dato, V.M., and Eisenberg, M.C. (2015). What factors might have led to the emergence of Ebola in West Africa?. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003652"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pourrut, X., Souris, M., Towner, J.S., Rollin, P.E., Nichol, S.T., Gonzalez, J.P., and Leroy, E. (2009). Large serological survey showing cocirculation of Ebola and Marburg viruses in Gabonese bat populations, and a high seroprevalence of both viruses in Rousettus aegyptiacus. BMC Infect. Dis., 9.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2334-9-159"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e04395","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.04395","article-title":"Mapping the zoonotic niche of Ebola virus disease in Africa","volume":"3","author":"Pigott","year":"2014","journal-title":"eLife"}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/12\/12\/1347\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T10:36:30Z","timestamp":1760178990000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/12\/12\/1347"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,24]]},"references-count":35,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,12]]}},"alternative-id":["v12121347"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v12121347","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,24]]}}}