{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,23]],"date-time":"2026-08-23T15:55:20Z","timestamp":1787500520434,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":29,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,16]],"date-time":"2020-12-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1608076800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Outbreaks of Rift Valley fever (RVF) occurred in Namibia in 2010 and 2011. Complete genome characterization was obtained from virus isolates collected during disease outbreaks in southern Namibia in 2010 and from wildlife in Etosha National Park in 2011, close to the area where RVF outbreaks occurred in domestic livestock. The virus strains were sequenced using Sanger sequencing (Namibia_2010) or next generation sequencing (Namibia_2011). A sequence-independent, single-primer amplification (SISPA) protocol was used in combination with the Illumina Next 500 sequencer. Phylogenetic analysis of the sequences of the small (S), medium (M), and large (L) genome segments of RVF virus (RVFV) provided evidence that two distinct RVFV strains circulated in the country. The strain collected in Namibia in 2010 is genetically similar to RVFV strains circulating in South Africa in 2009 and 2010, confirming that the outbreaks reported in the southern part of Namibia in 2010 were caused by possible dissemination of the infection from South Africa. Isolates collected in 2011 were close to RVFV isolates from 2010 collected in humans in Sudan and which belong to the large lineage containing RVFV strains that caused an outbreak in 2006\u20132008 in eastern Africa. This investigation showed that the RVFV strains circulating in Namibia in 2010 and 2011 were from two different introductions and that RVFV has the ability to move across regions. This supports the need for risk-based surveillance and monitoring.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v12121453","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,16]],"date-time":"2020-12-16T22:12:06Z","timestamp":1608156726000},"page":"1453","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Genetic Diversity of Rift Valley Fever Strains Circulating in Namibia in 2010 and 2011"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Gian Mario","family":"Cosseddu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell\u2019Abruzzo e del Molise \u201cG. Caporale\u201d\u2014IZSAM, Campo Boario, 64100 Teramo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kudakwashe","family":"Magwedere","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Central Veterinary Laboratory (CVL), 13187 Windhoek, Namibia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4146-4015","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Umberto","family":"Molini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Central Veterinary Laboratory (CVL), 13187 Windhoek, Namibia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6538-5453","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chiara","family":"Pinoni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell\u2019Abruzzo e del Molise \u201cG. Caporale\u201d\u2014IZSAM, Campo Boario, 64100 Teramo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sigfried","family":"Khaiseb","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Central Veterinary Laboratory (CVL), 13187 Windhoek, Namibia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Massimo","family":"Scacchia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell\u2019Abruzzo e del Molise \u201cG. Caporale\u201d\u2014IZSAM, Campo Boario, 64100 Teramo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7875-633X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maurilia","family":"Marcacci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell\u2019Abruzzo e del Molise \u201cG. Caporale\u201d\u2014IZSAM, Campo Boario, 64100 Teramo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5970-8383","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrea","family":"Capobianco Dondona","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell\u2019Abruzzo e del Molise \u201cG. Caporale\u201d\u2014IZSAM, Campo Boario, 64100 Teramo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8049-6282","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fabrizia","family":"Valleriani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell\u2019Abruzzo e del Molise \u201cG. Caporale\u201d\u2014IZSAM, Campo Boario, 64100 Teramo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andrea","family":"Polci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell\u2019Abruzzo e del Molise \u201cG. Caporale\u201d\u2014IZSAM, Campo Boario, 64100 Teramo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Federica","family":"Monaco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell\u2019Abruzzo e del Molise \u201cG. Caporale\u201d\u2014IZSAM, Campo Boario, 64100 Teramo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cll.2017.01.004","article-title":"Rift Valley Fever","volume":"37","author":"Hartman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Lab. Med."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1405","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1980.29.1405","article-title":"Experimental Transmission and Field Isolation Studies Implicating Culex Pipiens as a Vector of Rift Valley Fever Virus in Egypt","volume":"29","author":"Meegan","year":"1980","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1051\/vetres\/2010033","article-title":"Rift Valley fever virus (Bunyaviridae: Phlebovirus): An update on pathogenesis, molecular epidemiology, vectors, diagnostics and prevention","volume":"41","author":"Pepin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-3-35","article-title":"Emergence of zoonotic arboviruses by animal trade and migration","volume":"3","author":"Pfeffer","year":"2010","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19506","DOI":"10.2807\/ese.15.10.19506-en","article-title":"Rift Valley fever\u2014A threat for Europe?","volume":"15","author":"Chevalier","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eurosurveillance"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1002\/path.1700340418","article-title":"Enzootic hepatitis or rift valley fever. An undescribed virus disease of sheep cattle and man from east africa","volume":"34","author":"Daubney","year":"1931","journal-title":"J. Pathol. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(01)24634-0","article-title":"Rift valley fever","volume":"219","author":"Daubney","year":"1932","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"28024","article-title":"A systematic review of Rift Valley Fever epidemiology 1931\u20132014","volume":"5","author":"Nanyingi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Infect. Ecol. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases (NCEZID), Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology (DHCPP), Viral Special Pathogens Branch (VSPB) (2020, November 09). RVF Distribution Map, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/vhf\/rvf\/outbreaks\/distribution-map.html."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2805","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02095-06","article-title":"Complete Genome Analysis of 33 Ecologically and Biologically Diverse Rift Valley Fever Virus Strains Reveals Widespread Virus Movement and Low Genetic Diversity due to Recent Common Ancestry","volume":"81","author":"Bird","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.4102\/ojvr.v80i1.384","article-title":"Temporal and spatial history of Rift Valley fever in South Africa: 1950 to 2011","volume":"80","author":"Pienaar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Onderstepoort J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"7","article-title":"Update on the 2010 Rift Valley fever outbreak in South Africa","volume":"5","author":"Paweska","year":"2011","journal-title":"Arbo-Zoonet News"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2025","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1912.130593","article-title":"Rift Valley Fever in Namibia, 2010","volume":"19","author":"Monaco","year":"2013","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2270","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1712.111035","article-title":"Molecular Epidemiology of Rift Valley Fever Virus","volume":"17","author":"Grobbelaar","year":"2011","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Office International des Epizooties (2020, April 14). World Animal Health Information Database, 2012: Event Summary, Rift Valley Fever, Namibia. Available online: http:\/\/www.oie.int\/wahis_2\/public\/wahid.php\/Reviewreport\/Review\/viewsummary?reportid=10680."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2201.150725","article-title":"Rift Valley Fever Virus among Wild Ruminants, Etosha National Park, Namibia, 2011","volume":"22","author":"Dondona","year":"2016","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8196","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.73.10.8196-8200.1999","article-title":"Genetic Reassortment of Rift Valley Fever Virus in Nature","volume":"73","author":"Sall","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-422X-5-82","article-title":"Rift Valley fever virus structural proteins: Expression, characterization and assembly of recombinant proteins","volume":"5","author":"Liu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"8","article-title":"Molecular Biology of Rift Valley Fever Virus","volume":"4","author":"Bouloy","year":"2010","journal-title":"Open Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6970","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0712130105","article-title":"Arbovirus evolution in vivo is constrained by host alternation","volume":"105","author":"Coffey","year":"2008","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moutailler, S., Roche, B., Thiberge, J.-M., Caro, V., Rougeon, F., and Failloux, A.-B. (2011). Host Alternation Is Necessary to Maintain the Genome Stability of Rift Valley Fever Virus. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0001156"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11353","DOI":"10.1038\/srep11353","article-title":"Reassortment and distinct evolutionary dynamics of Rift Valley Fever virus genomic segments","volume":"5","author":"Freire","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12891","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0504666102","article-title":"Cloning of a human parvovirus by molecular screening of respiratory tract samples","volume":"102","author":"Allander","year":"2005","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1089\/cmb.2012.0021","article-title":"SPAdes: A New Genome Assembly Algorithm and Its Applications to Single-Cell Sequencing","volume":"19","author":"Bankevich","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Comput. Biol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1792","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkh340","article-title":"MUSCLE: Multiple sequence alignment with high accuracy and high throughput","volume":"32","author":"Edgar","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1547","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/msy096","article-title":"MEGA X: Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis across Computing Platforms","volume":"35","author":"Kumar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1902.120834","article-title":"Rift Valley Fever, Sudan, 2007 and 2010","volume":"19","author":"Aradaib","year":"2013","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11152","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01519-08","article-title":"Multiple Virus Lineages Sharing Recent Common Ancestry Were Associated with a Large Rift Valley Fever Outbreak among Livestock in Kenya during 2006\u20132007","volume":"82","author":"Bird","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Soumar\u00e9, P.O.L., Freire, C.C.M., Faye, O., Diallo, M., De Oliveira, J.V.C., Zanotto, P.M.A., and Sall, A.A. (2012). Phylogeography of Rift Valley Fever Virus in Africa Reveals Multiple Introductions in Senegal and Mauritania. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0035216"}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/12\/12\/1453\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T10:46:08Z","timestamp":1760179568000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/12\/12\/1453"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,16]]},"references-count":29,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,12]]}},"alternative-id":["v12121453"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v12121453","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,16]]}}}