{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,24]],"date-time":"2026-10-24T01:14:13Z","timestamp":1792804453304,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":342,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,23]],"date-time":"2021-01-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1611360000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000025","name":"National Institute of Mental Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01 MH087332"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01 MH087332"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000025","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000025","name":"National Institute of Mental Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01 MH104131"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01 MH104131"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000025","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000025","name":"National Institute of Mental Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01 MH105330"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01 MH105330"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000025","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000026","name":"National Institute on Drug Abuse","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01 DA052209"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01 DA052209"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000026","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Viral infections remain a global public health concern and cause a severe societal and economic burden. At the organismal level, the innate immune system is essential for the detection of viruses and constitutes the first line of defense. Viral components are sensed by host pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). PRRs can be further classified based on their localization into Toll-like receptors (TLRs), C-type lectin receptors (CLR), retinoic acid-inducible gene-I (RIG-I)-like receptors (RLRs), NOD-like receptors (NLRs) and cytosolic DNA sensors (CDS). TLR and RLR signaling results in production of type I interferons (IFN\u03b1 and -\u03b2) and pro-inflammatory cytokines in a cell-specific manner, whereas NLR signaling leads to the production of interleukin-1 family proteins. On the other hand, CLRs are capable of sensing glycans present in viral pathogens, which can induce phagocytic, endocytic, antimicrobial, and pro- inflammatory responses. Peripheral immune sensing of viruses and the ensuing cytokine response can significantly affect the central nervous system (CNS). But viruses can also directly enter the CNS via a multitude of routes, such as the nasal epithelium, along nerve fibers connecting to the periphery and as cargo of infiltrating infected cells passing through the blood brain barrier, triggering innate immune sensing and cytokine responses directly in the CNS. Here, we review mechanisms of viral immune sensing and currently recognized consequences for the CNS of innate immune responses to viruses.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v13020170","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,25]],"date-time":"2021-01-25T12:28:31Z","timestamp":1611577711000},"page":"170","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":71,"title":["Innate Immune Sensing of Viruses and Its Consequences for the Central Nervous System"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Hina","family":"Singh","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA"},{"name":"Infectious and Inflammatory Disease Center, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, 10901 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7368-4891","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jeffrey","family":"Koury","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3202-670X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marcus","family":"Kaul","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA"},{"name":"Infectious and Inflammatory Disease Center, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, 10901 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1038\/ni1303","article-title":"Innate immune recognition of viral infection","volume":"7","author":"Kawai","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1077","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.08.021","article-title":"Emerging Pandemic Diseases: How We Got to COVID-19","volume":"182","author":"Morens","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiy103","article-title":"A Universal Influenza Vaccine: The Strategic Plan for the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases","volume":"218","author":"Erbelding","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01884-19","article-title":"A Bivalent, Spherical Virus-Like Particle Vaccine Enhances Breadth of Immune Responses against Pathogenic Ebola Viruses in Rhesus Macaques","volume":"94","author":"Singh","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00046-08","article-title":"Pathogen Recognition and Inflammatory Signaling in Innate Immune Defenses","volume":"22","author":"Mogensen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"821","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2010.01.040","article-title":"The Inflammasomes","volume":"140","author":"Schroder","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"855","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2013.05.007","article-title":"Cytosolic Sensing of Viruses","volume":"38","author":"Goubau","year":"2013","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"987","DOI":"10.1038\/ni1112","article-title":"Toll-like receptor control of the adaptive immune responses","volume":"5","author":"Iwasaki","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.1016\/S0952-7915(02)00354-0","article-title":"Links between innate and adaptive immunity via type I interferon","volume":"14","author":"Tough","year":"2002","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.immunol.23.021704.115843","article-title":"Type I interferons (\u03b1\/\u03b2) in immunity and autoimmunity","volume":"23","author":"Theofilopoulos","year":"2005","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2014.00461","article-title":"Toll-Like Receptor Signaling Pathways","volume":"5","author":"Kawasaki","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.1863","article-title":"The role of pattern-recognition receptors in innate immunity: Update on Toll-like receptors","volume":"11","author":"Kawai","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.1159\/000226136","article-title":"Toll-Like Receptor 2 Senses Hepatitis C Virus Core Protein but Not Infectious Viral Particles","volume":"1","author":"Hoffmann","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Innate Immun."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7094","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.177.10.7094","article-title":"Human Cytomegalovirus Envelope Glycoproteins B and H Are Necessary for TLR2 Activation in Permissive Cells","volume":"177","author":"Boehme","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"829","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.31112","article-title":"Hepatitis B Virus Particles Activate Toll-Like Receptor 2 Signaling Initially Upon Infection of Primary Human Hepatocytes","volume":"72","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6555","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00295-12","article-title":"Herpes Simplex Virus Glycoproteins gH\/gL and gB Bind Toll-Like Receptor 2, and Soluble gH\/gL Is Sufficient to Activate NF-B","volume":"86","author":"Leoni","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1315","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0308057100","article-title":"Herpes simplex virus 1 interaction with Toll-like receptor 2 contributes to lethal encephalitis","volume":"101","author":"Chan","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7703","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00050-14","article-title":"Toll-like receptor 2-mediated innate immune responses against Junin virus in mice lead to an-tiviral adaptive immune responses during systemic infection and do not affect viral replication in the brain","volume":"88","author":"Cuevas","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2006.12.032","article-title":"Vesicular stomatitis virus glycoprotein G activates a specific antiviral Toll-like receptor 4-dependent pathway","volume":"362","author":"Georgel","year":"2007","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01462-09","article-title":"Interaction between Ebola virus glycoprotein and host toll-like receptor 4 leads to induction of proin-flammatory cytokines and SOCS","volume":"84","author":"Okumura","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2281","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.042355399","article-title":"Murine retroviruses activate B cells via interaction with toll-like receptor","volume":"99","author":"Rassa","year":"2002","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.1189\/jlb.4A1215-534R","article-title":"HIV-1 gp120 signaling through TLR4 modulates innate immune activation in human macrophages and the biology of hepatic stellate cells","volume":"100","author":"Cappon","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Leukoc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"470","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2008.09.012","article-title":"Toll-like Receptor 4 Mediates Innate Immunity to Kaposi Sarcoma Herpesvirus","volume":"4","author":"Lagos","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1038\/ni926","article-title":"Subversion of the innate immune system by a retrovirus","volume":"4","author":"Pobezinskaya","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"576","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.78.2.576-584.2004","article-title":"Toll-Like Receptor 4-Dependent Activation of Dendritic Cells by a Retrovirus","volume":"78","author":"Burzyn","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2008.02.043","article-title":"Identification of Oxidative Stress and Toll-like Receptor 4 Signaling as a Key Pathway of Acute Lung Injury","volume":"133","author":"Imai","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1038\/mi.2009.120","article-title":"Novel signaling interactions between proteinase-activated receptor 2 and Toll-like receptors in vitro and in vivo","volume":"3","author":"Nhu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"672395","DOI":"10.1155\/2010\/672395","article-title":"DAMPening inflammation by modulating TLR signalling","volume":"2010","author":"Piccinini","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mediat. Inflamm"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1186\/1465-9921-10-31","article-title":"Extracellular Hsp72, an endogenous DAMP, is released by virally infected airway epithelial cells and activates neutrophils via Toll-like receptor (TLR)-4","volume":"10","author":"Wheeler","year":"2009","journal-title":"Respir. Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Borde, C., Barnay-Verdier, S., Gaillard, C., Hocini, H., Mar\u00e9chal, V., and Gozlan, J. (2011). Stepwise Release of Biologically Active HMGB1 during HSV-2 Infection. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0016145"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"732","DOI":"10.1038\/35099560","article-title":"Recognition of double-stranded RNA and activation of NF-kappaB by Toll-like receptor","volume":"413","author":"Alexopoulou","year":"2001","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2091","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20081761","article-title":"Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)\u2013encoded small RNA is released from EBV-infected cells and activates signaling from toll-like receptor 3","volume":"206","author":"Iwakiri","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3350","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.79.6.3350-3357.2005","article-title":"Differential Role for TLR3 in Respiratory Syncytial Virus-Induced Chemokine Expression","volume":"79","author":"Rudd","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1937","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.176.3.1937","article-title":"Deletion of TLR3 Alters the Pulmonary Immune Environment and Mucus Production during Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection","volume":"176","author":"Rudd","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Q., Miller, D.J., Bowman, E.R., Nagarkar, D.R., Schneider, D., Zhao, Y., Linn, M.J., Goldsmith, A.M., Bentley, J.K., and Sajjan, U.S. (2011). MDA5 and TLR3 initiate pro-inflammatory signaling pathways leading to rhinovirus-induced airways in-flammation and hyperresponsiveness. PLoS Pathog., 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1002070"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1368","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI60893","article-title":"TLR3 deficiency renders astrocytes permissive to herpes simplex virus infection and facilitates estab-lishment of CNS infection in mice","volume":"122","author":"Reinert","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4889","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI59259","article-title":"Herpes simplex encephalitis in children with autosomal recessive and dominant TRIF deficiency","volume":"121","author":"Lorenzo","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1522","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1139522","article-title":"TLR3 Deficiency in Patients with Herpes Simplex Encephalitis","volume":"317","author":"Zhang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5627","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00014-10","article-title":"HIV-1 Lentiviral Vector Immunogenicity Is Mediated by Toll-Like Receptor 3 (TLR3) and TLR7","volume":"84","author":"Breckpot","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3368","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.178.6.3368","article-title":"Cutting Edge: Influenza A virus activates TLR3-dependent inflammatory and RIG-I-dependent antiviral responses in human lung epithelial cells","volume":"178","author":"Pothlichet","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, K.-R., Yu, C.-K., Kung, S.-H., Chen, S.-H., Chang, C.-F., Ho, T.-C., Lee, Y.-P., Chang, H.-C., Kung, S.-H., and Lo, S.-Y. (2018). Toll-Like Receptor 3 Is Involved in Detection of Enterovirus A71 Infection and Targeted by Viral 2A Protease. Viruses, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/v10120689"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12977-014-0126-4","article-title":"Friend retrovirus drives cytotoxic effectors through Toll-like receptor 3","volume":"11","author":"Gibbert","year":"2014","journal-title":"Retrovirology"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9824","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01125-09","article-title":"Toll-Like Receptor 3 Mediates Establishment of an Antiviral State against Hepatitis C Virus in Hepatoma Cells","volume":"83","author":"Wang","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"901","DOI":"10.3390\/v4050901","article-title":"Protective Role of Toll-like Receptor 3-Induced Type I Interferon in Murine Coronavirus Infection of Macrophages","volume":"4","author":"Mazaleuskaya","year":"2012","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1366","DOI":"10.1038\/nm1140","article-title":"Toll-like receptor 3 mediates West Nile virus entry into the brain causing lethal encephalitis","volume":"10","author":"Wang","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.180.1.483","article-title":"TLR3 Increases Disease Morbidity and Mortality from Vaccinia Infection","volume":"180","author":"Hutchens","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.immunol.23.021704.115633","article-title":"IPC: Professional Type I Interferon-Producing Cells and Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cell Precursors","volume":"23","author":"Liu","year":"2005","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1526","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1093620","article-title":"Species-Specific Recognition of Single-Stranded RNA via Toll-like Receptor 7 and 8","volume":"303","author":"Heil","year":"2004","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1117","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1462-5822.2005.00537.x","article-title":"Human cardiac inflammatory responses triggered by Coxsackie B viruses are mainly Toll-like receptor (TLR) 8-dependent","volume":"7","author":"Triantafilou","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cell. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12944","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.79.20.12944-12951.2005","article-title":"Activation of Innate Defense against a Paramyxovirus Is Mediated by RIG-I and TLR7 and TLR8 in a Cell-Type-Specific Manner","volume":"79","author":"Melchjorsen","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7658","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.178.12.7658","article-title":"Single-Stranded RNA Derived from HIV-1 Serves as a Potent Activator of NK Cells","volume":"178","author":"Alter","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5598","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0400937101","article-title":"Recognition of single-stranded RNA viruses by Toll-like receptor 3","volume":"101","author":"Lund","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29447","DOI":"10.1038\/srep29447","article-title":"HCV RNA Activates APCs via TLR7\/TLR8 While Virus Selectively Stimulates Macrophages Without Inducing Antiviral Responses","volume":"6","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.00429","article-title":"Toll-Like Receptor 7 Enhances Rabies Virus-Induced Humoral Immunity by Facilitating the Formation of Germinal Centers","volume":"10","author":"Luo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00930-19","article-title":"Murine Leukemia Virus Exploits Innate Sensing by Toll-Like Receptor 7 in B-1 Cells to Establish Infection and Locally Spread in Mice","volume":"93","author":"Pi","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2017.00160","article-title":"TLR7 Deficiency Leads to TLR8 Compensative Regulation of Immune Response against JEV in Mice","volume":"8","author":"Awais","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"3651","article-title":"TLR8 deficiency leads to autoimmunity in mice","volume":"120","author":"DeMaria","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_58","first-page":"1","article-title":"TLR7 and TLR8 activate distinct pathways in monocytes during RNA virus infection","volume":"12","author":"Dhaliwal","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Signal"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7767","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.179.11.7767","article-title":"Human Cytomegalovirus Differentially Controls B Cell and T Cell Responses through Effects on Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells","volume":"179","author":"Varani","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3620","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.0903736","article-title":"TLR9 Contributes to the Recognition of EBV by Primary Monocytes and Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells","volume":"185","author":"Fiola","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1043","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2005-12-024802","article-title":"Human plasmacytoid dendritic cells regulate immune responses to Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection and delay EBV-related mortality in humanized NOD-SCID mice","volume":"109","author":"Lim","year":"2006","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1038\/cmi.2010.84","article-title":"IFN-\u03b1 production by human mononuclear cells infected with varicella-zoster virus through TLR9-dependent and -independent pathways","volume":"8","author":"Yu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20030162","article-title":"Toll-like Receptor 9\u2013mediated Recognition of Herpes Simplex Virus-2 by Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells","volume":"198","author":"Lund","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11416","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0403555101","article-title":"Herpes simplex virus type-1 induces IFN- production via Toll-like receptor 9-dependent and -independent pathways","volume":"101","author":"Hochrein","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-019-3697-9","article-title":"TLR9 polymorphism correlates with immune activation, CD4 decline and plasma IP10 levels in HIV patients","volume":"19","author":"Joshi","year":"2019","journal-title":"BMC Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vincent, I.E., Zannetti, C., Lucifora, J., Norder, H., Protzer, U., Hainaut, P., Zoulim, F., Tommasino, M., Trepo, C., and Hasan, U.A. (2011). Hepatitis B Virus Impairs TLR9 Expression and Function in Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0026315"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11658","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00867-14","article-title":"Toll-like receptor 9-mediated protection of enterovirus 71 infection in mice is due to the release of dan-ger-associated molecular patterns","volume":"88","author":"Hsiao","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3793","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1324266111","article-title":"Toll-like receptor 10 is involved in induction of innate immune responses to influenza virus infection","volume":"111","author":"Lee","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3834","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1502599","article-title":"TLR10 Is a Negative Regulator of Both MyD88-Dependent and -Independent TLR Signaling","volume":"196","author":"Jiang","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1601335","article-title":"TLR10 Is a B Cell Intrinsic Suppressor of Adaptive Immune Responses","volume":"198","author":"Hess","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8729","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.76.17.8729-8736.2002","article-title":"Hemagglutinin Protein of Wild-Type Measles Virus Activates Toll-Like Receptor 2 Signaling","volume":"76","author":"Bieback","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12658","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.79.20.12658-12666.2005","article-title":"Varicella-Zoster Virus Activates Inflammatory Cytokines in Human Monocytes and Macrophages via Toll-Like Receptor 2","volume":"79","author":"Wang","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8016","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00403-07","article-title":"Epstein-Barr Virus Induces MCP-1 Secretion by Human Monocytes via TLR2","volume":"81","author":"Gaudreault","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2006-06-027136","article-title":"Innate immunity against vaccinia virus is mediated by TLR2 and requires TLR-independent production of IFN-\u03b2","volume":"109","author":"Zhu","year":"2007","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11313","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.78.20.11313-11320.2004","article-title":"Coxsackievirus B4-Induced Cytokine Production in Pancreatic Cells Is Mediated through Toll-Like Receptor 4","volume":"78","author":"Triantafilou","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.1038\/80833","article-title":"Pattern recognition receptors TLR4 and CD14 mediate response to respiratory syncytial virus","volume":"1","author":"Popova","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"482","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.00482","article-title":"TLR10 Senses HIV-1 Proteins and Significantly Enhances HIV-1 Infection","volume":"10","author":"Henrick","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1246","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmb.2013.11.024","article-title":"Toll-Like Receptors in Antiviral Innate Immunity","volume":"426","author":"Lester","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"885","DOI":"10.1038\/nature09121","article-title":"Helical assembly in the MyD88-IRAK4-IRAK2 complex in TLR\/IL-1R signalling","volume":"465","author":"Lin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5227","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M309251200","article-title":"Sequential Autophosphorylation Steps in the Interleukin-1 Receptor-associated Kinase-1 Regulate its Availability as an Adapter in Interleukin-1 Signaling","volume":"279","author":"Kollewe","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7158","DOI":"10.1128\/MCB.22.20.7158-7167.2002","article-title":"Interleukin-1 (IL-1) Receptor-Associated Kinase-Dependent IL-1-Induced Signaling Complexes Phosphorylate TAK1 and TAB2 at the Plasma Membrane and Activate TAK1 in the Cytosol","volume":"22","author":"Jiang","year":"2002","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Biol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-065X.2012.01108.x","article-title":"Ubiquitination in signaling to and activation of IKK","volume":"246","author":"Chen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Immunol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"915","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20042372","article-title":"Interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase-1 plays an essential role for Toll-like receptor (TLR)7- and TLR9-mediated interferon-{alpha} induction","volume":"201","author":"Uematsu","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15416","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0406933101","article-title":"Role of a transductional-transcriptional processor complex involving MyD88 and IRF-7 in Toll-like receptor signaling","volume":"101","author":"Honda","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18689","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M117.796912","article-title":"IRAK4 kinase activity controls Toll-like receptor\u2013induced inflammation through the transcription factor IRF5 in primary human monocytes","volume":"292","author":"Cushing","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1015","DOI":"10.1101\/gad.13.8.1015","article-title":"TRAF6 deficiency results in osteopetrosis and defective interleukin-1, CD40, and LPS signaling","volume":"13","author":"Lomaga","year":"1999","journal-title":"Genes Dev."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1111\/imr.12302","article-title":"Tumor necrosis factor receptor- associated factor 6 (TRAF6) regulation of development, function, and homeostasis of the immune system","volume":"266","author":"Walsh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Immunol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7966","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.03525-12","article-title":"Human Parainfluenza Virus Type 2 V Protein Inhibits TRAF6-Mediated Ubiquitination of IRF7 To Prevent TLR7- and TLR9-Dependent Interferon Induction","volume":"87","author":"Kitagawa","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1087","DOI":"10.1038\/ni1255","article-title":"Essential function for the kinase TAK1 in innate and adaptive immune responses","volume":"6","author":"Sato","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.1038\/ni1355","article-title":"The kinase TAK1 integrates antigen and cytokine receptor signaling for T cell development, survival and function","volume":"7","author":"Wan","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1016\/j.it.2013.03.007","article-title":"Cell type-specific function of TAK1 in innate immune signaling","volume":"34","author":"Ajibade","year":"2013","journal-title":"Trends Immunol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2668","DOI":"10.1101\/gad.1360605","article-title":"TAK1, but not TAB1 or TAB2, plays an essential role in multiple signaling pathways in vivo","volume":"19","author":"Shim","year":"2005","journal-title":"Genes Dev."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1037","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.1638","article-title":"Function of TRADD in tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 signaling and in TRIF-dependent inflammatory responses","volume":"9","author":"Ermolaeva","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1089","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.1777","article-title":"Peli1 facilitates TRIF-dependent Toll-like receptor signaling and proinflammatory cytokine production","volume":"10","author":"Chang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_95","first-page":"208","article-title":"Critical role of TRAF3 in the Toll-like receptor-dependent and -independent antiviral response","volume":"439","author":"Oganesyan","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nat. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_96","first-page":"204","article-title":"Specificity in Toll-like receptor signalling through distinct effector functions of TRAF3 and TRAF6","volume":"439","author":"Redecke","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nat. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_97","first-page":"772","article-title":"IRF-7 is the master regulator of type-I interferon-dependent immune responses","volume":"434","author":"Honda","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nat. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34320","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M002814200","article-title":"Multiple Regulatory Domains Control IRF-7 Activity in Response to Virus Infection","volume":"275","author":"Lin","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1016\/S1097-2765(00)80051-9","article-title":"Virus infection induces the assembly of coordinately activated transcription factors on the IFN-beta enhancer in vivo","volume":"1","author":"Wathelet","year":"1998","journal-title":"Mol. Cell"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6179","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1742-4658.2005.05031.x","article-title":"The C-type lectin-like domain superfamily","volume":"272","author":"Zelensky","year":"2005","journal-title":"FEBS J."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2011","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2012-01-402370","article-title":"Internalization and endosomal degradation of receptor-bound antigens regulate the efficiency of cross presentation by human dendritic cells","volume":"120","author":"Chatterjee","year":"2012","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_102","first-page":"448","article-title":"Receptor usage dictates HIV-1 restriction by human TRIM5\u03b1 in dendritic cell subsets","volume":"540","author":"Ribeiro","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"590","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.00590","article-title":"C-Type Lectin Receptors in Antiviral Immunity and Viral Escape","volume":"9","author":"Eder","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.00227","article-title":"C-Type Lectin-Like Receptors as Emerging Orchestrators of Sterile Inflammation Represent Potential Ther-apeutic Targets","volume":"9","author":"Chiffoleau","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2648","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2003-07-2532","article-title":"DC-SIGN promotes exogenous MHC-I\u2013restricted HIV-1 antigen presentation","volume":"103","author":"Moris","year":"2004","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e17","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.0040017","article-title":"The mannose receptor mediates dengue virus infection of macrophages","volume":"4","author":"Miller","year":"2008","journal-title":"PLoS Pathog."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1016\/S0092-8674(00)80694-7","article-title":"DC-SIGN, a Dendritic Cell\u2013Specific HIV-1-Binding Protein that Enhances trans-Infection of T Cells","volume":"100","author":"Geijtenbeek","year":"2000","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1111\/cmi.12249","article-title":"Signalling C-Type lectin receptors, microbial recognition and immunity","volume":"16","author":"Hoving","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Monteiro, J.T., and Lepenies, B. (2017). Myeloid C-Type Lectin Receptors in Viral Recognition and Antiviral Immunity. Viruses, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/v9030059"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8322","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.78.15.8322-8332.2004","article-title":"Hepatitis C Virus Targets DC-SIGN and L-SIGN to Escape Lysosomal Degradation","volume":"78","author":"Ludwig","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.2002.1730","article-title":"DC-SIGN and DC-SIGNR Bind Ebola Glycoproteins and Enhance Infection of Macrophages and Endothelial Cells","volume":"305","author":"Simmons","year":"2003","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12022","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.77.22.12022-12032.2003","article-title":"DC-SIGN and L-SIGN can act as attachment receptors for alphaviruses and distinguish between mosquito cell- and mammalian cell-derived viruses","volume":"77","author":"Klimstra","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2893.2008.00993.x","article-title":"Branched oligosaccharide structures on HBV prevent interaction with both DC-SIGN and L-SIGN","volume":"15","author":"Brouw","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Viral Hepat."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12029","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00315-07","article-title":"Specific Asparagine-Linked Glycosylation Sites Are Critical for DC-SIGN- and L-SIGN-Mediated Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Entry","volume":"81","author":"Han","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2005.06.026","article-title":"LSECtin interacts with filovirus glycoproteins and the spike protein of SARS coronavirus","volume":"340","author":"Gramberg","year":"2005","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_116","unstructured":"Gramberg, T., Hofmann, H., M\u00f6ller, P., Lalor, P.F., Marzi, A., Geier, M., Krumbiegel, M., Winkler, T., Kirchhoff, F., and Adams, D.H. (2012). CLEC5A regulates Japanese encephalitis virus-induced neuroinflammation and lethality. PLoS Pathog., 8."},{"key":"ref_117","first-page":"672","article-title":"CLEC5A is critical for dengue-virus-induced lethal disease","volume":"453","author":"Chen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nat. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01813-16","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01813-16","article-title":"CLEC5A-Mediated Enhancement of the Inflammatory Response in Myeloid Cells Contributes to Influenza Virus Pathogenicity In Vivo","volume":"91","author":"Teng","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1038\/nm1541","article-title":"Langerin is a natural barrier to HIV-1 transmission by Langerhans cells","volume":"13","author":"Nabatov","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01447-15","article-title":"The C-type Lectin Langerin Functions as a Receptor for Attachment and Infectious Entry of Influenza A Virus","volume":"90","author":"Ng","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1299","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2008-01-136473","article-title":"The C-type lectin surface receptor DCIR acts as a new attachment factor for HIV-1 in dendritic cells and contributes to trans- and cis-infection pathways","volume":"112","author":"Lambert","year":"2008","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1628","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI60660","article-title":"The DC receptor DNGR-1 mediates cross-priming of CTLs during vaccinia virus infection in mice","volume":"122","author":"Iborra","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Monteiro, J.T., Sch\u00f6n, K., Ebbecke, T., Goethe, R., Ruland, J., Baumg\u00e4rtner, W., Becker, S.C., and Lepenies, B. (2019). The CARD9-Associated C-Type Lectin, Mincle, Recognizes La Crosse Virus (LACV) but Plays a Limited Role in Early Antiviral Responses against LACV. Viruses, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/v11030303"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2217","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2014-02-556142","article-title":"The mouse NKR-P1B:Clr-b recognition system is a negative regulator of innate immune responses","volume":"125","author":"Rahim","year":"2015","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01220-19","article-title":"Mouse Cytomegalovirus m153 Protein Stabilizes Expression of the Inhibitory NKR-P1B Ligand Clr-b","volume":"94","author":"Aguilar","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1006\/bbrc.2002.6650","article-title":"Retinoic Acid-Inducible Gene-I Is Induced in Endothelial Cells by LPS and Regulates Expression of COX-2","volume":"292","author":"Imaizumi","year":"2002","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1586","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.01586","article-title":"Comparative Structure and Function Analysis of the RIG-I-Like Receptors: RIG-I and MDA5","volume":"10","author":"Brisse","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.022637199","article-title":"mda-5: An interferon-inducible putative RNA helicase with double-stranded RNA-dependent ATPase activity and melanoma growth-suppressive properties","volume":"99","author":"Kang","year":"2002","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1006\/geno.2001.6661","article-title":"The Stat3\/5 locus encodes novel endoplasmic reticulum and helicase-like proteins that are preferentially ex-pressed in normal and neoplastic mammary tissue","volume":"78","author":"Cui","year":"2001","journal-title":"Genomics"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2010.01.022","article-title":"Pattern Recognition Receptors and Inflammation","volume":"140","author":"Takeuchi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"680","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2011.05.003","article-title":"Immune Signaling by RIG-I-like Receptors","volume":"34","author":"Loo","year":"2011","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cytogfr.2014.07.006","article-title":"Antiviral RNA recognition and assembly by RLR family innate immune sensors","volume":"25","author":"Bruns","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cytokine Growth Factor Rev."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17465","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M109.007179","article-title":"Solution structures of cytosolic RNA sensor MDA5 and LGP2 C-terminal domains: Identification of the RNA recognition loop in RIG-I-like receptors","volume":"284","author":"Takahasi","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1512","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0912986107","article-title":"LGP2 is a positive regulator of RIG-I- and MDA5-mediated antiviral responses","volume":"107","author":"Satoh","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"586","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molcel.2016.04.021","article-title":"Structural Analysis of dsRNA Binding to Anti-viral Pattern Recognition Receptors LGP2 and MDA5","volume":"62","author":"Uchikawa","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol. Cell"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1032","DOI":"10.1016\/j.str.2010.05.007","article-title":"The Structural Basis of 5\u2032 Triphosphate Double-Stranded RNA Recognition by RIG-I C-Terminal Domain","volume":"18","author":"Lu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Structure"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"781","DOI":"10.1038\/nsmb.1863","article-title":"Structural and functional insights into 5\u2032-ppp RNA pattern recognition by the innate immune receptor RIG-I","volume":"17","author":"Wang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Struct. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_138","first-page":"372","article-title":"Antiviral immunity via RIG-I-mediated recognition of RNA bearing 5\u2032-diphosphates","volume":"514","author":"Goubau","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molcel.2017.05.022","article-title":"Sensing Self and Foreign Circular RNAs by Intron Identity","volume":"67","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Cell"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, Y., and Karijolich, J. (2019). Know Thyself: RIG-I-Like Receptor Sensing of DNA Virus Infection. J. Virol., 93.","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01085-19"},{"key":"ref_141","first-page":"101","article-title":"Differential roles of MDA5 and RIG-I helicases in the recognition of RNA viruses","volume":"441","author":"Kato","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2005.04.010","article-title":"Cell Type-Specific Involvement of RIG-I in Antiviral Response","volume":"23","author":"Kato","year":"2005","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4035","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02160-10","article-title":"Adenovirus Virus-Associated RNAs Induce Type I Interferon Expression through a RIG-I-Mediated Pathway","volume":"85","author":"Minamitani","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4207","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.emboj.7601314","article-title":"EB virus-encoded RNAs are recognized by RIG-I and activate signaling to induce type I IFN","volume":"25","author":"Samanta","year":"2006","journal-title":"EMBO J."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4150","DOI":"10.1038\/onc.2008.75","article-title":"Epstein\u2013Barr virus-encoded small RNA induces IL-10 through RIG-I-mediated IRF-3 signaling","volume":"27","author":"Samanta","year":"2008","journal-title":"Oncogene"},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2011.01.034","article-title":"RNA species generated in vaccinia virus infected cells activate cell type-specific MDA5 or RIG-I dependent interferon gene transcription and PKR dependent apoptosis","volume":"413","author":"Myskiw","year":"2011","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Delaloye, J., Roger, T., Steiner-Tardivel, Q.-G., Le Roy, D., Reymond, M.K., Akira, S., Petrilli, V., Gomez, C.E., Perdiguero, B., and Tschopp, J. (2009). Innate Immune Sensing of Modified Vaccinia Virus Ankara (MVA) Is Mediated by TLR2-TLR6, MDA-5 and the NALP3 Inflammasome. PLoS Pathog., 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1000480"},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9035","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0703285104","article-title":"Double-stranded DNA and double-stranded RNA induce a common antiviral signaling pathway in human cells","volume":"104","author":"Cheng","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2013.12.014","article-title":"Autoimmune Disorders Associated with Gain of Function of the Intracellular Sensor MDA5","volume":"40","author":"Funabiki","year":"2014","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1038\/ng1800","article-title":"A genome-wide association study of nonsynonymous SNPs identifies a type 1 diabetes locus in the inter-feron-induced helicase (IFIH1) region","volume":"38","author":"Smyth","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat. Genet."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4331","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms5331","article-title":"Sequencing-based approach identified three new susceptibility loci for psoriasis","volume":"5","author":"Sheng","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1136\/ard.2007.073213","article-title":"Association of the IFIH1-GCA-KCNH7 chromosomal region with rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"67","author":"Martinez","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"676","DOI":"10.1038\/ng.2272","article-title":"Genome-wide association analyses identify 13 new susceptibility loci for generalized vitiligo","volume":"44","author":"Jin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Genet."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2009.04.008","article-title":"Multiple sclerosis and polymorphisms of innate pattern recognition receptors TLR1-10, NOD1-2, DDX58, and IFIH","volume":"212","author":"Enevold","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Graham, D.S.C., Morris, D.L., Bhangale, T.R., Criswell, L.A., Syv\u00e4nen, A.-C., R\u00f6nnblom, L., Behrens, T.W., Graham, R.R., and Vyse, T.J. (2011). Association of NCF2, IKZF1, IRF8, IFIH1, and TYK2 with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus. PLoS Genet., 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgen.1002341"},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajhg.2014.12.014","article-title":"A Specific IFIH1 Gain-of-Function Mutation Causes Singleton-Merten Syndrome","volume":"96","author":"Rutsch","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Hum. Genet."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1038\/ng.2933","article-title":"Gain-of-function mutations in IFIH1 cause a spectrum of human disease phenotypes associated with upreg-ulated type I interferon signaling","volume":"46","author":"Rice","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Genet."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3677","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01360-06","article-title":"MDA-5 Is Cleaved in Poliovirus-Infected Cells","volume":"81","author":"Barral","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8459","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0603082103","article-title":"Essential role of mda-5 in type I IFN responses to polyriboinosinic:polyribocytidylic acid and encephalo-myocarditis picornavirus","volume":"103","author":"Gitlin","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McCartney, S.A., Thackray, L.B., Gitlin, L., Gilfillan, S., Virgin IV, H.W., and Colonna, M. (2008). MDA-5 recognition of a murine norovirus. PLoS Pathog., 4.","DOI":"10.1371\/annotation\/3ce83911-9ccf-4452-a690-2816d0e94c10"},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.3389\/fgene.2017.00130","article-title":"Recurrent and Prolonged Infections in a Child with a Homozygous IFIH1 Nonsense Mutation","volume":"8","author":"Zaki","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Genet."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8342","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1704259114","article-title":"Severe viral respiratory infections in children with IFIH1 loss-of-function mutations","volume":"114","author":"Asgari","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1949","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20161759","article-title":"Recurrent rhinovirus infections in a child with inherited MDA5 deficiency","volume":"214","author":"Lamborn","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01305-07","article-title":"Establishment and Maintenance of the Innate Antiviral Response to West Nile Virus Involves both RIG-I and MDA5 Signaling through IPS-1","volume":"82","author":"Fredericksen","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41426-018-0168-0","article-title":"Dengue virus and the host innate immune response","volume":"7","author":"Uno","year":"2018","journal-title":"Emerg. Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1601","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20080091","article-title":"Length-dependent recognition of double-stranded ribonucleic acids by retinoic acid\u2013inducible gene-I and melanoma differentiation\u2013associated gene 5","volume":"205","author":"Kato","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2851","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.175.5.2851","article-title":"Shared and unique functions of the DExD\/H-box helicases RIG-I, MDA5, and LGP2 in antiviral innate immunity","volume":"175","author":"Yoneyama","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-020-00438-7","article-title":"Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) membrane (M) protein inhibits type I and III interferon production by targeting RIG-I\/MDA-5 signaling","volume":"5","author":"Zheng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target Ther."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yoshikawa, T., Hill, T.E., Yoshikawa, N., Popov, V.L., Galindo, C.L., Garner, H.R., Peters, C.J., and Tseng, C.K. (2010). Dynamic Innate Immune Responses of Human Bronchial Epithelial Cells to Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome-Associated Coronavirus Infection. PLoS ONE, 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0008729"},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9829","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01199-08","article-title":"Murine Coronavirus Mouse Hepatitis Virus Is Recognized by MDA5 and Induces Type I Interferon in Brain Macrophages\/Microglia","volume":"82","author":"Bender","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6472","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00016-10","article-title":"Murine Coronavirus Induces Type I Interferon in Oligodendrocytes through Recognition by RIG-I and MDA5","volume":"84","author":"Li","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, J., Zhao, J., Van Rooijen, N., and Perlman, S. (2009). Evasion by stealth: Inefficient immune activation underlies poor T cell response and severe disease in SARS-CoV-infected mice. PLoS Pathog., 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1000636"},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coviro.2012.04.004","article-title":"SARS coronavirus pathogenesis: Host innate immune responses and viral antagonism of interferon","volume":"2","author":"Totura","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1795","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20060792","article-title":"Essential role of IPS-1 in innate immune responses against RNA viruses","volume":"203","author":"Kumar","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xing, F., Matsumiya, T., Hayakari, R., Yoshida, H., Kawaguchi, S., Takahashi, I., Nakaji, S., and Imaizumi, T. (2016). Alteration of Antiviral Signalling by Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) of Mitochondrial Antiviral Signalling Protein (MAVS). PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0151173"},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2353","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-02564-9","article-title":"The Absence of Interferon-beta Promotor Stimulator-1 (IPS-1) Predisposes to Bronchiolitis and Asthma-like Pathology in Response to Pneumoviral Infection in Mice","volume":"7","author":"Simpson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Suthar, M.S., Ma, D.Y., Thomas, S., Lund, J.M., Zhang, N., Daffis, S., Rudensky, A.Y., Bevan, M.J., Clark, E.A., and Kaja, M.-K. (2010). IPS-1 Is Essential for the Control of West Nile Virus Infection and Immunity. PLoS Pathog., 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1000757"},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roe, K., Giordano, D., Young, L.B., Draves, K.E., Holder, U., Suthar, M.S., Gale, M., and Clark, E.A. (2019). Dendritic cell-associated MAVS is required to control West Nile virus replication and ensuing humoral immune responses. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0218928"},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4740","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1301744","article-title":"The MyD88 Pathway in Plasmacytoid and CD4+Dendritic Cells Primarily Triggers Type I IFN Production against Measles Virus in a Mouse Infection Model","volume":"191","author":"Takaki","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Faul, E.J., Wanjalla, C.N., Suthar, M.S., Gale, M., Wirblich, C., and Schnell, M.J. (2010). Rabies Virus Infection Induces Type I Interferon Production in an IPS-1 Dependent Manner While Dendritic Cell Activation Relies on IFNAR Signaling. PLoS Pathog., 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1001016"},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5168","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02199-05","article-title":"Ebola Virus VP35 Protein Binds Double-Stranded RNA and Inhibits Alpha\/Beta Interferon Production Induced by RIG-I Signaling","volume":"80","author":"Loo","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Habjan, M., Andersson, I., Klingstr\u00f6m, J., Sch\u00fcmann, M., Martin, A., Zimmermann, P., Wagner, V., Pichlmair, A., Schneider, U., and M\u00fchlberger, E. (2008). Processing of Genome 5\u2032 Termini as a Strategy of Negative-Strand RNA Viruses to Avoid RIG-I-Dependent Interferon Induction. PLoS ONE, 3.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0002032"},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3717","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02634-10","article-title":"The Early Interferon Response to Rotavirus Is Regulated by PKR and Depends on MAVS\/IPS-1, RIG-I, MDA-5, and IRF3","volume":"85","author":"Sen","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01690-09","article-title":"Both RIG-I and MDA5 RNA helicases contribute to the induction of alpha\/beta interferon in measles vi-rus-infected human cells","volume":"84","author":"Ikegame","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1224","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01635-10","article-title":"RIG-I-Mediated Antiviral Signaling Is Inhibited in HIV-1 Infection by a Protease-Mediated Sequestration of RIG-I","volume":"85","author":"Solis","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-422X-6-200","article-title":"Retinoic acid inducible gene I Activates innate antiviral response against human parainfluenza virus type 3","volume":"6","author":"Sabbah","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_187","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2689","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.79.5.2689-2699.2005","article-title":"Regulating Intracellular Antiviral Defense and Permissiveness to Hepatitis C Virus RNA Replication through a Cellular RNA Helicase, RIG-I","volume":"79","author":"Sumpter","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_188","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21953","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M702112200","article-title":"Retinoic acid-inducible gene-I and interferon-beta promoter stimulator-1 augment proapoptotic responses following mammalian reovirus infection via interferon regulatory factor-3","volume":"282","author":"Holm","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9452","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00155-10","article-title":"Induction and inhibition of type I interferon responses by distinct components of lymphocytic choriomen-ingitis virus","volume":"84","author":"Zhou","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gitlin, L., Benoit, L., Song, C., Cella, M., Gilfillan, S., Holtzman, M.J., and Colonna, M. (2010). Melanoma differentiation-associated gene 5 (MDA5) is involved in the innate immune response to Para-myxoviridae infection in vivo. PLoS Pathog., 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1000734"},{"key":"ref_191","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00631-09","article-title":"MDA5 and MAVS Mediate Type I Interferon Responses to Coxsackie B Virus","volume":"84","author":"Wang","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_192","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11350","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01106-10","article-title":"Early innate recognition of herpes simplex virus in human primary macrophages is mediated via the MDA5\/MAVS-dependent and MDA5\/MAVS\/RNA polymerase III-independent pathways","volume":"84","author":"Melchjorsen","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_193","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1628","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1145918","article-title":"DUBA: A Deubiquitinase That Regulates Type I Interferon Production","volume":"318","author":"Kayagaki","year":"2007","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_194","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4291","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M109.074971","article-title":"Regulation of Virus-triggered Signaling by OTUB1- and OTUB2-mediated Deubiquitination of TRAF3 and TRAF6","volume":"285","author":"Li","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_195","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peng, Y., Xu, R., and Zheng, X. (2014). HSCARG Negatively Regulates the Cellular Antiviral RIG-I Like Receptor Signaling Pathway by Inhibiting TRAF3 Ubiquitination via Recruiting OTUB1. PLoS Pathog., 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1004041"},{"key":"ref_196","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1186\/s13578-018-0268-5","article-title":"Cell type-specific function of TRAF2 and TRAF3 in regulating type I IFN induction","volume":"9","author":"Xie","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell Biosci."},{"key":"ref_197","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1159\/000450705","article-title":"Deletion of Irf3 and Irf7 Genes in Mice Results in Altered Interferon Pathway Activation and Granulo-cyte-Dominated Inflammatory Responses to Influenza a Infection","volume":"9","author":"Hatesuer","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Innate. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_198","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4194","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1300799","article-title":"The roles of IRF-3 and IRF-7 in innate antiviral immunity against dengue virus","volume":"191","author":"Chen","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_199","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"981","DOI":"10.1038\/ni1243","article-title":"IPS-1, an adaptor triggering RIG-I- and Mda5-mediated type I interferon induction","volume":"6","author":"Kawai","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_200","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.1038\/nri1900","article-title":"IRFs: Master regulators of signalling by Toll-like receptors and cytosolic pattern-recognition receptors","volume":"6","author":"Honda","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_201","first-page":"401","article-title":"A FADD-dependent innate immune mechanism in mammalian cells","volume":"432","author":"Balachandran","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nat. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_202","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12332","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01325-06","article-title":"RNA- and Virus-Independent Inhibition of Antiviral Signaling by RNA Helicase LGP2","volume":"80","author":"Komuro","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_203","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Childs, K.S., Randall, R.E., and Goodbourn, S. (2013). LGP2 Plays a Critical Role in Sensitizing mda-5 to Activation by Double-Stranded RNA. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0064202"},{"key":"ref_204","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"938","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M112.424416","article-title":"ATP Hydrolysis Enhances RNA Recognition and Antiviral Signal Transduction by the Innate Immune Sensor, Laboratory of Genetics and Physiology 2 (LGP2)","volume":"288","author":"Bruns","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_205","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01535","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.01535","article-title":"Identification of an LGP2-associated MDA5 agonist in picornavirus-infected cells","volume":"3","author":"Deddouche","year":"2014","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"ref_206","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1478","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.29050","article-title":"Laboratory of genetics and physiology 2 (LGP2) plays an essential role in hepatitis C virus infec-tion-induced interferon responses","volume":"65","author":"Hei","year":"2017","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_207","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-065X.2008.00734.x","article-title":"Function of Nod-like receptors in microbial recognition and host defense","volume":"227","author":"Franchi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Immunol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_208","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.3349\/ymj.2016.57.1.5","article-title":"NOD-Like Receptors in Infection, Immunity, and Diseases","volume":"57","author":"Kim","year":"2016","journal-title":"Yonsei Med. J."},{"key":"ref_209","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coi.2008.06.001","article-title":"NOD-like receptors (NLRs): Bona fide intracellular microbial sensors","volume":"20","author":"Shaw","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_210","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36560","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M607594200","article-title":"Critical role for Cryopyrin\/Nalp3 in activation of caspase-1 in response to viral infection and dou-ble-stranded RNA","volume":"281","author":"Kanneganti","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_211","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1038\/nature06664","article-title":"The inflammasome recognizes cytosolic microbial and host DNA and triggers an innate immune re-sponse","volume":"452","author":"Muruve","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_212","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramos, H.J., Lanteri, M.C., Blahnik, G., Negash, A., Suthar, M.S., Brassil, M.M., Sodhi, K., Treuting, P.M., Busch, M.P., and Norris, P.J. (2012). IL-1beta signaling promotes CNS-intrinsic immune control of West Nile virus infection. PLoS Pathog., 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1003039"},{"key":"ref_213","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.00211","article-title":"NLRP3 Inflammasome\u2014A Key Player in Antiviral Responses","volume":"11","author":"Zhao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_214","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1013","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2014.04.007","article-title":"Mechanisms and Functions of Inflammasomes","volume":"157","author":"Lamkanfi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_215","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2063","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.042978-0","article-title":"Inflammasomes and viruses: Cellular defence versus viral offence","volume":"93","author":"Gram","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_216","first-page":"338","article-title":"Structural mechanism for NEK7-licensed activation of NLRP3 inflammasome","volume":"570","author":"Sharif","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_217","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1038\/nri.2016.58","article-title":"Inflammasomes: Mechanism of assembly, regulation and signalling","volume":"16","author":"Broz","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_218","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"792","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2016.03.046","article-title":"Inflammasome Complexes: Emerging Mechanisms and Effector Functions","volume":"165","author":"Rathinam","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_219","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1285","DOI":"10.1038\/cr.2015.139","article-title":"Gasdermin D is an executor of pyroptosis and required for interleukin-1beta secretion","volume":"25","author":"He","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell Res."},{"key":"ref_220","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smim.2013.10.018","article-title":"Interleukin-1beta in innate inflammation, autophagy and immunity","volume":"25","author":"Joosten","year":"2013","journal-title":"Semin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_221","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2013.00289","article-title":"Interleukin-18 and IL-18 Binding Protein","volume":"4","author":"Dinarello","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_222","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molimm.2017.01.023","article-title":"Regulation and functions of NLRP3 inflammasome during influenza virus infection","volume":"86","author":"Kuriakose","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_223","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Castro-Jorge, L.A., de Carvalho, R.V., Klein, T.M., Hiroki, C.H., Lopes, A.H., Guimar\u00e3es, R.M., Fumagalli, M.J., Floriano, V.G., Agostinho, M.R., and Slhessarenko, R.D. (2019). The NLRP3 inflammasome is involved with the pathogenesis of Mayaro virus. PLoS Pathog., 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1007934"},{"key":"ref_224","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Negash, A.A., Ramos, H.J., Crochet, N., Lau, D.T., Doehle, B., Papic, N., Delker, D.A., Jo, J., Bertoletti, A., and Hagedorn, C.H. (2013). IL-1beta production through the NLRP3 inflammasome by hepatic macrophages links hepatitis C virus infection with liver inflammation and disease. PLoS Pathog., 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1003330"},{"key":"ref_225","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"786","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1232458","article-title":"Cyclic GMP-AMP Synthase Is a Cytosolic DNA Sensor That Activates the Type I Interferon Pathway","volume":"339","author":"Sun","year":"2013","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_226","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1007\/s12250-018-0005-6","article-title":"The Regulation of cGAS","volume":"33","author":"Xiong","year":"2018","journal-title":"Virol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_227","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dai, P., Wang, W., Cao, H., Avogadri, F., Dai, L., Drexler, I., Joyce, J.A., Li, X.D., Chen, Z., and Merghoub, T. (2014). Modified vaccinia virus Ankara triggers type I IFN production in murine conventional dendritic cells via a cGAS\/STING-mediated cytosolic DNA-sensing pathway. PLoS Pathog., 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1003989"},{"key":"ref_228","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"974","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02702-13","article-title":"Adenovirus Detection by the cGAS\/STING\/TBK1 DNA Sensing Cascade","volume":"88","author":"Lam","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_229","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"568412","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.568412","article-title":"Vaccinia Virus Activation and Antagonism of Cytosolic DNA Sensing","volume":"11","author":"Teir","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_230","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1276","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.01276","article-title":"Antigen Cross-Presentation by Macrophages","volume":"11","author":"Muntjewerff","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_231","first-page":"269","article-title":"Targeting STING with covalent small-molecule inhibitors","volume":"559","author":"Haag","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_232","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Georgana, I., Sumner, R.P., Towers, G.J., and De Motes, C.M. (2018). Virulent Poxviruses Inhibit DNA Sensing by Preventing STING Activation. J. Virol., 92.","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02145-17"},{"key":"ref_233","first-page":"380","article-title":"cGAS produces a 2\u2032-5\u2032-linked cyclic dinucleotide second messenger that activates STING","volume":"498","author":"Ablasser","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_234","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"691","DOI":"10.1038\/nature12862","article-title":"Pan-viral specificity of IFN-induced genes reveals new roles for cGAS in innate immunity","volume":"505","author":"Schoggins","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_235","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"903","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1240933","article-title":"Cyclic GMP-AMP Synthase Is an Innate Immune Sensor of HIV and Other Retroviruses","volume":"341","author":"Gao","year":"2013","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_236","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1025","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.3267","article-title":"Sequence-specific activation of the DNA sensor cGAS by Y-form DNA structures as found in primary HIV-1 cDNA","volume":"16","author":"Herzner","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_237","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/nmicrobiol.2017.37","article-title":"Dengue virus NS2B protein targets cGAS for degradation and prevents mitochondrial DNA sensing during infection","volume":"2","author":"Aguirre","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_238","first-page":"144","article-title":"Corrigendum: Pan-viral specificity of IFN-induced genes reveals new roles for cGAS in innate im-munity","volume":"525","author":"Schoggins","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_239","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1695","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.30054","article-title":"Hepatitis B Virus Evasion from Cyclic Guanosine Monophosphate-Adenosine Monophosphate Synthase Sensing in Human Hepatocytes","volume":"68","author":"Verrier","year":"2018","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_240","first-page":"258","article-title":"Virus interference. I. The interferon","volume":"147","author":"Isaacs","year":"1957","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. London. Ser. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_241","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1777","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(00)04904-7","article-title":"An overview of the immune system","volume":"357","author":"Parkin","year":"2001","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_242","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1089\/vim.2018.0085","article-title":"Type I Interferons in NeuroHIV","volume":"32","author":"Thaney","year":"2019","journal-title":"Viral Immunol."},{"key":"ref_243","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-065X.2008.00737.x","article-title":"Innate immunity to virus infection","volume":"227","author":"Takeuchi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Immunol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_244","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"713","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biochi.2007.05.001","article-title":"Interferon, a growing cytokine family: 50 years of interferon research","volume":"89","author":"Wietzerbin","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biochimie"},{"key":"ref_245","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1111\/tra.12026","article-title":"Presentation of Phagocytosed Antigens by MHC Class I and II","volume":"14","author":"Mantegazza","year":"2013","journal-title":"Traffic"},{"key":"ref_246","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/6374379","article-title":"NK-DC Crosstalk in Immunity to Microbial Infection","volume":"2016","author":"Thomas","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_247","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1241","DOI":"10.1086\/319759","article-title":"Encephalitis without Meningitis Due to Sandfly Fever Virus Serotype Toscana","volume":"32","author":"Dionisio","year":"2001","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_248","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2020.06.016","article-title":"Lipocalin-2 mediates HIV-1 induced neuronal injury and behavioral deficits by overriding CCR5-dependent protection","volume":"89","author":"Shah","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_249","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1007\/s11910-006-0048-1","article-title":"Viral myelitis: An update","volume":"6","author":"Kincaid","year":"2006","journal-title":"Curr. Neurol. Neurosci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_250","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2013.03.010","article-title":"Virus Infections in the Nervous System","volume":"13","author":"Koyuncu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_251","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2012.03.009","article-title":"Viral disruption of the blood\u2013brain barrier","volume":"20","author":"Spindler","year":"2012","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_252","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1007\/s00401-015-1511-3","article-title":"Neurotropic virus infections as the cause of immediate and delayed neuropathology","volume":"131","author":"Ludlow","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol."},{"key":"ref_253","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"790","DOI":"10.1111\/apha.12250","article-title":"The neurovascular unit-concept review","volume":"210","author":"Muoio","year":"2014","journal-title":"Acta Physiol."},{"key":"ref_254","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2084","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.181.3.2084","article-title":"Drak2 Contributes to West Nile Virus Entry into the Brain and Lethal Encephalitis","volume":"181","author":"Wang","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_255","first-page":"988","article-title":"Pathways to neuronal injury and apoptosis in HIV-associated dementia","volume":"410","author":"Kaul","year":"2001","journal-title":"Nat. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_256","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.4103\/ijmr.IJMR_1912_17","article-title":"Current status of the HIV epidemic & challenges in prevention","volume":"146","author":"Karim","year":"2017","journal-title":"Indian J. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_257","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000002277","article-title":"Prevalence of HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders in the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study","volume":"86","author":"Sacktor","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_258","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lutgen, V., Narasipura, S.D., Barbian, H.J., Richards, M., Wallace, J., Razmpour, R., Buzhdygan, T., Ramirez, S.H., Prevedel, L., and Eugenin, E.A. (2020). HIV infects astrocytes in vivo and egresses from the brain to the periphery. PLoS Pathog., 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1008381"},{"key":"ref_259","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2462","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.0801952","article-title":"Functional Modulation of Dendritic Cells and Macrophages by Japanese Encephalitis Virus through MyD88 Adaptor Molecule-Dependent and -Independent Pathways","volume":"183","author":"Aleyas","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_260","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1007\/s11481-010-9233-8","article-title":"Minocycline Differentially Modulates Viral Infection and Persistence in an Experimental Model of Japanese Encephalitis","volume":"5","author":"Dutta","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmune Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_261","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.19426-0","article-title":"A model to study neurotropism and persistency of Japanese encephalitis virus infection in human neuro-blastoma cells and leukocytes","volume":"85 Pt 3","author":"Yang","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_262","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1098","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.3863-05.2006","article-title":"CCL2\/monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 mediates enhanced transmigration of human immunodefi-ciency virus (HIV)-infected leukocytes across the blood-brain barrier: A potential mechanism of HIV-CNS invasion and NeuroAIDS","volume":"26","author":"Eugenin","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_263","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2008.11.047","article-title":"West Nile virus infection modulates human brain microvascular endothelial cells tight junction proteins and cell adhesion molecules: Transmigration across the in vitro blood-brain barrier","volume":"385","author":"Verma","year":"2009","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_264","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1038\/cmi.2014.51","article-title":"Immunobiology of congenital cytomegalovirus infection of the central nervous system\u2014The murine cytomegalovirus model","volume":"12","author":"Slavuljica","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_265","first-page":"91","article-title":"Human cytomegalovirus replication and modulation of apoptosis in astrocytes","volume":"2","author":"Lokensgard","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Hum. Virol."},{"key":"ref_266","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"778","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(10)70194-8","article-title":"Virology, epidemiology, pathogenesis, and control of enterovirus","volume":"10","author":"Solomon","year":"2010","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis."},{"key":"ref_267","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1435","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2019.01435","article-title":"Dengue Virus Infection of Blood\u2013Brain Barrier Cells: Consequences of Severe Disease","volume":"10","author":"Castellanos","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_268","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcv.2009.12.006","article-title":"Human polyoma viruses and disease with emphasis on clinical BK and JC","volume":"47","author":"Boothpur","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Clin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_269","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12140","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.77.22.12140-12151.2003","article-title":"Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Enters Primary Human Brain Microvascular Endothelial Cells by a Mechanism Involving Cell Surface Proteoglycans Independent of Lipid Rafts","volume":"77","author":"Argyris","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_270","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1007\/s004410051130","article-title":"Japanese encephalitis virus is transported across the cerebral blood vessels by endocytosis in mouse brain","volume":"293","author":"Liou","year":"1998","journal-title":"Cell Tissue Res."},{"key":"ref_271","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2008.06.017","article-title":"Bovine lactoferrin inhibits Japanese encephalitis virus by binding to heparan sulfate and receptor for low density lipoprotein","volume":"379","author":"Chien","year":"2008","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_272","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"705","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2016.03.008","article-title":"Type III Interferons Produced by Human Placental Trophoblasts Confer Protection against Zika Virus In-fection","volume":"19","author":"Bayer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_273","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00952-17","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.00952-17","article-title":"Zika Virus Persistently Infects and Is Basolaterally Released from Primary Human Brain Microvascular Endothelial Cells","volume":"8","author":"Mladinich","year":"2017","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref_274","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2557","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2017.02557","article-title":"Zika Virus Infects, Activates, and Crosses Brain Microvascular Endothelial Cells, without Barrier Disruption","volume":"8","author":"Papa","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_275","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Afonso, P.V., Ozden, S., Cumont, M.-C., Seilhean, D., Cartier, L., Rezaie, P., Mason, S., Lambert, S., Huerre, M., and Gessain, A. (2008). Alteration of Blood\u2013Brain Barrier Integrity by Retroviral Infection. PLoS Pathog., 4.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1000205"},{"key":"ref_276","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8978","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00314-08","article-title":"Matrix Metalloproteinase 9 Facilitates West Nile Virus Entry into the Brain","volume":"82","author":"Wang","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_277","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01476-14","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.01476-14","article-title":"Viral Pathogen-Associated Molecular Patterns Regulate Blood-Brain Barrier Integrity via Competing Innate Cytokine Signals","volume":"5","author":"Daniels","year":"2014","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref_278","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1080\/13550280590922793","article-title":"Olfactory transmission of neurotropic viruses","volume":"11","author":"Mori","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Neurovirology"},{"key":"ref_279","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kupke, A., Becker, S., Wewetzer, K., Ahlemeyer, B., Eickmann, M., and Herden, C. (2019). Intranasal Borna Disease Virus (BoDV-1) Infection: Insights into Initial Steps and Potential Contagiosity. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20061318"},{"key":"ref_280","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiu097","article-title":"Evidence for Influenza Virus CNS Invasion Along the Olfactory Route in an Immunocompromised Infant","volume":"210","author":"Leijten","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_281","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.1995.1252","article-title":"The Earliest Events in Vesicular Stomatitis Virus Infection of the Murine Olfactory Neuroepithelium and Entry of the Central Nervous System","volume":"209","author":"Plakhov","year":"1995","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_282","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2020.1127","article-title":"Neurologic Manifestations of Hospitalized Patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019 in Wuhan, China","volume":"77","author":"Mao","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol."},{"key":"ref_283","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2020.05.012","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 Detected in Cerebrospinal Fluid by PCR in a Case of COVID-19 En-cephalitis","volume":"87","author":"Huang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_284","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1111\/cns.13372","article-title":"Neurological manifestations in COVID-19 caused by SARS-CoV-CNS","volume":"26","author":"Baig","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurosci. Ther."},{"key":"ref_285","first-page":"665","article-title":"Infectability of human BrainSphere neurons suggests neurotropism of SARS-CoV-2","volume":"37","author":"Bullen","year":"2020","journal-title":"ALTEX"},{"key":"ref_286","first-page":"4221","article-title":"Neuropilin-1 as a new potential SARS-CoV-2 infection mediator implicated in the neurologic features and central nervous system involvement of COVID-19","volume":"22","author":"Davies","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol. Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_287","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-020-0868-6","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 entry factors are highly expressed in nasal epithelial cells together with innate immune genes","volume":"26","author":"Sungnak","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_288","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-422X-9-50","article-title":"Rabies molecular virology, diagnosis, prevention and treatment","volume":"9","author":"Yousaf","year":"2012","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_289","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1080\/13550280590900427","article-title":"Rabies virus receptors","volume":"11","author":"Lafon","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. NeuroVirol."},{"key":"ref_290","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gluska, S., Zahavi, E.E., Chein, M., Gradus, T., Bauer, A., Finke, S., and Perlson, E. (2014). Rabies Virus Hijacks and Accelerates the p75NTR Retrograde Axonal Transport Machinery. PLoS Pathog., 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1004348"},{"key":"ref_291","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-387040-7.00010-X","article-title":"Rabies Virus as a Transneuronal Tracer of Neuronal Connections","volume":"79","author":"Ugolini","year":"2011","journal-title":"Adv. Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_292","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1177\/1941874414533352","article-title":"Poliomyelitis: Historical facts, epidemiology, and current challenges in eradication","volume":"4","author":"Mehndiratta","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neurohospitalist"},{"key":"ref_293","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2005.09.015","article-title":"One hundred years of poliovirus pathogenesis","volume":"344","author":"Racaniello","year":"2006","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_294","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.66.1.296-304.1992","article-title":"Human poliovirus receptor gene expression and poliovirus tissue tropism in transgenic mice","volume":"66","author":"Ren","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_295","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2012.00147","article-title":"Poliovirus trafficking toward central nervous system via human poliovirus receptor-dependent and -independent pathway","volume":"3","author":"Ohka","year":"2012","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_296","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17140","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0705837104","article-title":"Axonal transport mediates West Nile virus entry into the central nervous system and induces acute flaccid paralysis","volume":"104","author":"Samuel","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_297","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1097\/nen.0b013e318163a990","article-title":"The Distribution of Inflammation and Virus in Human Enterovirus 71 Encephalomyelitis Suggests Possible Viral Spread by Neural Pathways","volume":"67","author":"Wong","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_298","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1002\/rmv.560","article-title":"Transport and egress of herpes simplex virus in neurons","volume":"18","author":"Diefenbach","year":"2007","journal-title":"Rev. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_299","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1164","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI58644","article-title":"Innate immunity in the central nervous system","volume":"122","author":"Ransohoff","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_300","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"841","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1194637","article-title":"Fate Mapping Analysis Reveals That Adult Microglia Derive from Primitive Macrophages","volume":"330","author":"Ginhoux","year":"2010","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_301","first-page":"547","article-title":"Tissue-resident macrophages originate from yolk-sac-derived erythro-myeloid progenitors","volume":"518","author":"Perdiguero","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_302","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejphar.2003.10.030","article-title":"Molecular physiology of P2 receptors in the central nervous system","volume":"483","author":"Illes","year":"2004","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_303","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1007\/s00401-018-1885-0","article-title":"Microglia control the spread of neurotropic virus infection via P2Y12 signalling and recruit monocytes through P2Y12-independent mechanisms","volume":"136","author":"Fekete","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol."},{"key":"ref_304","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2297","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.0800596","article-title":"Local Type I IFN Receptor Signaling Protects against Virus Spread within the Central Nervous System","volume":"182","author":"Detje","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_305","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2731","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02044-14","article-title":"Upon Intranasal Vesicular Stomatitis Virus Infection, Astrocytes in the Olfactory Bulb Are Important Interferon Beta Producers That Protect from Lethal Encephalitis","volume":"89","author":"Detje","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_306","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E95","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1618157114","article-title":"The brain parenchyma has a type I interferon response that can limit virus spread","volume":"114","author":"Drokhlyansky","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_307","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wuertz, K.M., Treuting, P.M., Hemann, E.A., Esser-Nobis, K., Snyder, A.G., Graham, J.B., Daniels, B.P., Wilkins, C., Snyder, J.M., and Voss, K.M. (2019). STING is required for host defense against neuropathological West Nile virus infection. PLoS Pathog., 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1007899"},{"key":"ref_308","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.3108","article-title":"Differential innate immune response programs in neuronal subtypes determine susceptibility to infection in the brain by positive-stranded RNA viruses","volume":"19","author":"Cho","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_309","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4095","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1401192","article-title":"IL-1R1 signaling regulates CXCL12-mediated T cell localization and fate within the central nervous system during West Nile Virus encephalitis","volume":"193","author":"Durrant","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_310","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro2950","article-title":"West Nile virus infection and immunity","volume":"11","author":"Suthar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Genet."},{"key":"ref_311","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6657","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00302-11","article-title":"Ambivalent Role of the Innate Immune Response in Rabies Virus Pathogenesis","volume":"85","author":"Chopy","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_312","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1016\/j.stem.2016.02.016","article-title":"Zika Virus Infects Human Cortical Neural Progenitors and Attenuates Their Growth","volume":"18","author":"Tang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell Stem Cell"},{"key":"ref_313","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1016\/j.stem.2016.04.014","article-title":"Zika Virus Depletes Neural Progenitors in Human Cerebral Organoids through Activation of the Innate Immune Receptor TLR3","volume":"19","author":"Dang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell Stem Cell"},{"key":"ref_314","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Serman, T.M., and Gack, M.U. (2019). Evasion of Innate and Intrinsic Antiviral Pathways by the Zika Virus. Viruses, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/v11100970"},{"key":"ref_315","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"901","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8749.2010.03717.x","article-title":"Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis: An update","volume":"52","author":"Gutierrez","year":"2010","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child Neurol."},{"key":"ref_316","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.spen.2012.02.003","article-title":"Measles Virus and Associated Central Nervous System Sequelae","volume":"19","author":"Buchanan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Semin. Pediatr. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_317","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3102","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.171.6.3102","article-title":"Measles Virus Infection Induces Chemokine Synthesis by Neurons","volume":"171","author":"Patterson","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_318","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, L., Yan, C., Gieling, R.G., Kida, Y., Garner, W.L., Li, W., and Han, Y.-P. (2009). Tumor necrosis factor-alpha induced expression of matrix metalloproteinase-9 through p21-activated Kinase-1. BMC Immunol., 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2172-10-15"},{"key":"ref_319","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"843","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI88720","article-title":"Regional astrocyte IFN signaling restricts pathogenesis during neurotropic viral infection","volume":"127","author":"Daniels","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_320","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-017-02816-2","article-title":"An evolutionary NS1 mutation enhances Zika virus evasion of host interferon induction","volume":"9","author":"Xia","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_321","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2913","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.80.6.2913-2923.2006","article-title":"West Nile Virus Evades Activation of Interferon Regulatory Factor 3 through RIG-I-Dependent and -Independent Pathways without Antagonizing Host Defense Signaling","volume":"80","author":"Fredericksen","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_322","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nelemans, T., and Kikkert, M. (2019). Viral Innate Immune Evasion and the Pathogenesis of Emerging RNA Virus Infections. Viruses, 11.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints201909.0212.v1"},{"key":"ref_323","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mib.2016.05.015","article-title":"Innate immune evasion strategies of DNA and RNA viruses","volume":"32","author":"Beachboard","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_324","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35102","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M114.597062","article-title":"HIV-1 Vpu Accessory Protein Induces Caspase-mediated Cleavage of IRF3 Transcription Factor","volume":"289","author":"Park","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_325","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sirois, M., Robitaille, L., Allary, R., Shah, M., Woelk, C.H., Estaquier, J., and Corbeil, J. (2011). TRAF6 and IRF7 Control HIV Replication in Macrophages. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0028125"},{"key":"ref_326","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1016\/S0165-5728(00)00315-5","article-title":"Role of MIP-1beta and RANTES in HIV-1 infection of microglia: Inhibition of infection and induction by IFN\u03b2","volume":"110","author":"Kitai","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_327","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro.2016.45","article-title":"Viral evasion of intracellular DNA and RNA sensing","volume":"14","author":"Chan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Genet."},{"key":"ref_328","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2009.07.001","article-title":"TLR3 and TLR4 are innate antiviral immune receptors in human microglia: Role of IRF3 in modulating antiviral and inflammatory response in the CNS","volume":"392","author":"Suh","year":"2009","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_329","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2334-14-321","article-title":"How to approach and treat viral infections in ICU patients","volume":"14","author":"Kelesidis","year":"2014","journal-title":"BMC Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_330","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1038\/nrneurol.2016.27","article-title":"HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder\u2014Pathogenesis and prospects for treatment","volume":"12","author":"Saylor","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_331","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiw505","article-title":"Prevalence and Correlates of Persistent HIV-1 RNA in Cerebrospinal Fluid During Antiretroviral Therapy","volume":"215","author":"Anderson","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_332","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.23988","article-title":"Novel approaches and challenges to treatment of central nervous system viral infections","volume":"74","author":"Nath","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_333","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"The IFNB Multiple Sclerosis Study Group (1993). Interferon beta-1b is effective in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis. Neurology, 43, 655.","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.43.4.655"},{"key":"ref_334","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.410370511","article-title":"The effect of interferon-beta on blood-brain barrier disruptions demonstrated by contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis","volume":"37","author":"Stone","year":"1995","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_335","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"710","DOI":"10.1093\/jnen\/61.8.710","article-title":"Interferon-beta counteracts inflammatory mediator-induced effects on brain endothelial cell tight junction molecules-implications for multiple sclerosis","volume":"61","author":"Kuruganti","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_336","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00696","DOI":"10.1002\/brb3.696","article-title":"The innovative development in interferon beta treatments of relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis","volume":"7","author":"Madsen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Brain Behav."},{"key":"ref_337","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"srep46514","DOI":"10.1038\/srep46514","article-title":"IFN\u03b2 Protects Neurons from Damage in a Murine Model of HIV-1 Associated Brain Injury","volume":"7","author":"Thaney","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_338","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1361","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1471-4159.2002.00949.x","article-title":"Interferon-\u03b2 activates multiple signaling cascades in primary human microglia","volume":"81","author":"Kim","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Neurochem."},{"key":"ref_339","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.cdd.4402006","article-title":"HIV-1 coreceptors CCR5 and CXCR4 both mediate neuronal cell death but CCR5 paradoxically can also contribute to protection","volume":"14","author":"Kaul","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cell Death Differ."},{"key":"ref_340","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-3542(99)00055-8","article-title":"Effect of recombinant human interferon \u03b1 B\/D (rHu-IFN-\u03b1 B\/D) in combination with acyclovir in experimental HSV-1 encephalitis","volume":"44","author":"Wintergerst","year":"1999","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_341","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"664","DOI":"10.1086\/590671","article-title":"Effect of Pretreatment with Toll-like Receptor Agonists in a Mouse Model of Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 Encephalitis","volume":"198","author":"Boivin","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_342","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2012.09.022","article-title":"Modulation of TLR9 response in a mouse model of herpes simplex virus encephalitis","volume":"96","author":"Boivin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/13\/2\/170\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:14:29Z","timestamp":1760159669000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/13\/2\/170"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,23]]},"references-count":342,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2]]}},"alternative-id":["v13020170"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v13020170","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,23]]}}}