{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,16]],"date-time":"2026-09-16T00:02:40Z","timestamp":1789516960082,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,4]],"date-time":"2021-03-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1614816000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Sylvatic rabies was present in Slovenia between 1973 and 2013, with the red fox as the main reservoir of the rabies virus. The first oral rabies vaccination (ORV) control program in foxes started in 1988, using the manual distribution of baits. Significant improvement of fox vaccination was achieved with the aerial distribution of baits, starting in 1995 and successfully finished with the final, fifty-ninth vaccination campaign in 2019. Between 1979 and 2019, a total of 86,471 samples were tested, and 10,975 (12.69%) rabies-positive animals were identified. Within the ORV, two different vaccines were used, containing modified live virus strain Street Alabama Dufferin (SAD) B19 and SAD Bern, while the last ORV campaigns were completed in 2019, with a vaccine containing a genetically modified strain of SPBN GASGAS. Molecular epidemiological studies of 95 rabies-positive samples, originating from red foxes, badgers, cattle, dogs, martens, cats, and horses, revealed a low genetic diversity of circulating strains and high similarity to strains from neighboring countries. During the elimination program, few vaccine-induced rabies cases were detected: three in red foxes and one case in a marten, with no epidemiological relevance. Slovenia has been officially declared a country free of rabies since 2016.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v13030405","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,5]],"date-time":"2021-03-05T00:39:07Z","timestamp":1614904747000},"page":"405","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["The Successful Elimination of Sylvatic Rabies Using Oral Vaccination of Foxes in Slovenia"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Danijela","family":"\u010cerne","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Microbiology and Parasitology, Virology Unit, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peter","family":"Hostnik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Microbiology and Parasitology, Virology Unit, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ivan","family":"Toplak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Microbiology and Parasitology, Virology Unit, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2018). Rabies Vaccines and Immunoglobulins. WHO Position, Weekly Epidemiological Record, WHO."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1586\/14760584.4.4.533","article-title":"Vaccines for lyssaviruses other than rabies","volume":"4","author":"Nel","year":"2005","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2021, January 11). ICTV Code. Available online: https:\/\/talk.ictvonline.org\/ictv-reports\/ictv_online_report\/negative-sense-rna-viruses\/w\/rhabdoviridae\/795\/genus-lyssavirus."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"King, A.A., Fooks, A.R., Aubert, M., and Wandeler, A.I. (2004). European rabies control and its history. Historical Perspective of Rabies in Europe and the Mediterranean Basin, OIE."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1750","DOI":"10.1016\/S0264-410X(98)00446-0","article-title":"Epidemiology and control of fox rabies in Europe","volume":"17","author":"Pastoret","year":"1999","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"35","article-title":"Oral immunization of red foxes (Vulpes, L.) in Europe\u2014A review","volume":"9","author":"Schluter","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Eltik. Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/0147-9571(82)90031-5","article-title":"Oral immunization of foxes against rabies laboratory and field studies","volume":"5","author":"Steck","year":"1982","journal-title":"Comp. Immunol. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Robardet, E., Bosnjak, D., Englund, L., Demetriou, P., Mart\u00edn, P.R., and Cliquet, F. (2019). Zero Endemic Cases of Wildlife Rabies (Classical Rabies Virus, RABV) in the European Union by 2020: An Achievable Goal. Trop. Med. Infect. Dis., 4.","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed4040124"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"346","DOI":"10.1179\/2047772413Z.000000000175","article-title":"2008\u20132011 sylvatic rabies epidemic in Italy: Challenges and experiences","volume":"107","author":"Mulatti","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pathog. Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2002.130473","article-title":"Recurrence of Animal Rabies, Greece, 2012","volume":"20","author":"Tasioudi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"905","DOI":"10.1586\/14787210.2014.921570","article-title":"Rabies in Europe: What are the risks?","volume":"12","author":"Cliquet","year":"2014","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Antiinfect. Ther."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"\u017deleznik, Z., Grom, J., and Valen\u010dak, Z. (1982). Steklina v Sloveniji od 1971 do 1981. Zbornik ob 25. Letnici Ustanovitve Jugoslovanskega Mikrobiolo\u0161kega Dru\u0161tva, Slovensko Mikrobiolo\u0161ko Dru\u0161tvo."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"95","article-title":"Zaklju\u010dek programa peroralnega cepljenja lisic v Sloveniji","volume":"15","author":"Hostnik","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vestnik VZbSi"},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia (2021, January 11). Data on Forestry and Hunting\u2014Hunting, Available online: https:\/\/www.stat.si\/doc\/letopis\/2013\/17_13\/17-12-13.html."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-42.2.459","article-title":"Control of Rabies in Slovenia","volume":"42","author":"Hostnik","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Wildl. Dis."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Rihtari\u010d, D. (2013). Prou\u010devanje Molekularno-Epidemiolo\u0161kih Zna\u010dilnosti Virusa Stekline pri Divjih in Doma\u010dih \u017divalih v Sloveniji. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Ljubljana]."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"563","article-title":"Rabies movement and eradication in Croatia","volume":"100","author":"Kodrnja","year":"1970","journal-title":"Vet. Arhiv"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bedekovi\u0107, T., Jankovi\u0107, I.L., \u0160imi\u0107, I., Kre\u0161i\u0107, N., Lojki\u0107, I., Su\u010dec, I., Robardet, E., and Cliquet, F. (2018). Control and elimination of rabies in Croatia. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0204115"},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"171","article-title":"A review of rabies elimination in Europe","volume":"49","year":"2012","journal-title":"Veterin\u00e1rn\u00ed Med."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"70","article-title":"History and epizootiology of rabies","volume":"50","author":"Nagy","year":"1995","journal-title":"Hung. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"195","article-title":"Rabies\u2014Current situation","volume":"122","author":"Balint","year":"2000","journal-title":"Hung. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"e14","article-title":"Resurgence of rabies in Hungary during 2013\u20132014: An attempt to track the origin of identified strains","volume":"65","year":"2017","journal-title":"Transbound. Emerg. Dis."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"10","article-title":"The reinfection of rabies in Karnten (Carinthia) in Austria\u2014The run of events","volume":"26","author":"Vogl","year":"2002","journal-title":"Rabies Bull. Eur."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1081","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-009-0408-7","article-title":"Analysis of vaccine-virus-associated rabies cases in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) after oral rabies vaccination campaigns in Germany and Austria","volume":"154","author":"Beckert","year":"2009","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"243","article-title":"Situation and control of rabies in Italy","volume":"86","author":"Bellani","year":"1976","journal-title":"Bull. Off. Int. Epizoot."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"5","article-title":"Update 331 on fox rabies in Italy and Slovenia","volume":"1","author":"Capua","year":"2009","journal-title":"Rabies Bull. Eur."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.20506\/rst.13.3.796","article-title":"Efficacy of the first oral vaccination against fox rabies in Slovenia","volume":"13","author":"Curk","year":"1994","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Tech. OIE"},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"73","article-title":"Laboratory techniques in rabies: The fluorescent antibody test","volume":"23","author":"Dean","year":"1973","journal-title":"Monogr. Ser. World Heal. Organ."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"60","article-title":"Development of Harmonized Schemes for Monitoring and Reporting of Rabies in Animals in the European Union","volume":"7","author":"Cliquet","year":"2010","journal-title":"EFSA J."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2013.10.021","article-title":"Evaluation of a rabies ELISA as an alternative method to seroneutralisation tests in the context of international trade of domestic carnivores","volume":"195","author":"Wasniewski","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Virol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2545","DOI":"10.1099\/0022-1317-80-10-2545","article-title":"Ecology and evolution of rabies virus in Europe","volume":"80","author":"Bourhy","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"164","article-title":"PHYLIP-Phylogeny inference package (Version 3.2)","volume":"5","author":"Felsenstein","year":"1989","journal-title":"Cladistics"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"19033","article-title":"Emergence of fox rabies in north-eastern Italy","volume":"13","author":"Gallo","year":"2008","journal-title":"Eurosurveillance"},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"5","article-title":"Bites of a rabid wolf in 67-old man in north-eastern part of Croatia","volume":"33","year":"2009","journal-title":"Rabies Bull. Eur."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2171","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.032748-0","article-title":"Molecular diversity and evolutionary history of rabies virus strains circulating in the Balkans","volume":"92","author":"McElhinney","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.7589\/2013-07-183","article-title":"Vaccine-induced Rabies in a Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes): Isolation of Vaccine Virus in Brain Tissue and Salivary Glands","volume":"50","author":"Hostnik","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Wildl. Dis."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2907.2002.00094.x","article-title":"The role of the Badger (Meles meles) in rabies epizootiology and the implications for Great Britain","volume":"32","author":"Smith","year":"2002","journal-title":"Mammal Rev."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2014.10.026","article-title":"Terrestrial rabies control in the European Union: Historical achievements and challenges ahead","volume":"203","author":"Freuling","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2907.2011.00185.x","article-title":"Current status and distribution of golden jackals Canis aureus in Europe","volume":"42","author":"Arnold","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mammal Rev."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Kova\u010d, Z. (1993). Epizootiologija Silvati\u010dne Stekline v Republiki Sloveniji v Letih 1970\u20131990. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Univestity of Ljubljana]."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cliquet, F., Robardet, E., Must, K., Laine, M., Peik, K., Picard-Meyer, E., Guiot, A.-L., and Niin, E. (2012). Eliminating Rabies in Estonia. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0001535"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M\u00fcller, T.F., Schr\u00f6der, R., Wysocki, P., Mettenleiter, T.C., and Freuling, C.M. (2015). Spatio-temporal Use of Oral Rabies Vaccines in Fox Rabies Elimination Programmes in Europe. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003953"},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"255","article-title":"Comparison of the efficacy of the antirabies vaccines used for foxes in France","volume":"27","author":"Masson","year":"1996","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2019, January 03). WHO Expert Consultation on Rabies: Second Report WHO Technical Report. Series 982. Available online: http:\/\/apps.who.int\/iris\/bitstream\/10665\/85346\/1\/9789240690943_eng.pdf."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2008.07.020","article-title":"Effect of blood sample handling post-collection on Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae antibody titres","volume":"180","author":"Neumann","year":"2009","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Robardet, E., Picard-Meyer, E., Dobro\u0161tana, M., Jaceviciene, I., M\u00e4har, K., Mui\u017eniece, Z., Pridotkas, G., Masiulis, M., Niin, E., and Ol\u0161evskis, E. (2016). Rabies in the Baltic States: Decoding a Process of Control and Elimination. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004432"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2014.01.006","article-title":"Determination of critical factors causing cytotoxicity in the virus neutralization test","volume":"199","author":"Shiraishi","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Virol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"537","article-title":"Comparison of the effectiveness of two protocols of antirabies bait distribution for foxes (Vulpes vulpes)","volume":"29","author":"Vuillaume","year":"1998","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.80.1.70","article-title":"Characterization of an antigenic determinant of the glycoprotein that correlates with pathogenicity of rabies virus","volume":"80","author":"Dietzschold","year":"1983","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"926","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.53.3.926-934.1985","article-title":"Rabies virulence: Effect on pathogenicity and sequence characterization of rabies virus mutations affecting antigenic site III of the glycoprotein","volume":"53","author":"Seif","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6822(89)90122-0","article-title":"Arginine or lysine in position 333 of ERA and CVS glycoprotein is necessary for rabies virulence in adult mice","volume":"172","author":"Tuffereau","year":"1989","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"363","article-title":"Postopki prepre\u010devanja stekline v Sloveniji","volume":"81","author":"Kraigher","year":"2012","journal-title":"Zdr. Vest"},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"73","article-title":"Self-declaration by Slovenia of freedom from Rabies","volume":"2","author":"Posedi","year":"2016","journal-title":"OIE Bull."}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/13\/3\/405\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:32:54Z","timestamp":1760160774000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/13\/3\/405"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,4]]},"references-count":53,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3]]}},"alternative-id":["v13030405"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v13030405","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,4]]}}}