{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]],"date-time":"2026-04-17T23:46:51Z","timestamp":1776469611888,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":68,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,23]],"date-time":"2021-03-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1616457600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Effective broad-spectrum antiviral treatments are in dire need as disinfectants and therapeutic alternatives. One such method of disinfection is photodynamic inactivation, which involves the production of reactive oxygen species from dissolved oxygen in response to light-stimulated photosensitizers. This study evaluated the efficacy of functionalized porphyrin compounds for photodynamic inactivation of bacteriophages as human virus surrogates. A blue-light light emitting diode (LED) lamp was used to activate porphyrin compounds in aqueous solution (phosphate buffer). The DNA bacteriophages \u03a6X174 and P22 were more resistant to porphyrin TMPyP photodynamic inactivation than RNA bacteriophage fr, with increasing rates of inactivation in the order: \u03a6X174 &lt;&lt; P22 &lt;&lt; fr. Bacteriophage \u03a6X174 was therefore considered a resistant virus suitable for the evaluation of three additional porphyrins. These porphyrins were synthesized from TMPyP by inclusion of a central palladium ion (PdT4) and\/or the addition of a hydrophobic C14 chain (PdC14 or C14). While the inactivation rate of bacteriophage \u03a6X174 via TMPyP was similar to previous reports of resistant viruses, \u03a6X174 inactivation increased by a factor of approximately 2.5 using the metalloporphyrins PdT4 and PdC14. The order of porphyrin effectiveness was TMPyP &lt; C14 &lt; PdT4 &lt; PdC14, indicating that both Pd2+ ligation and C14 functionalization aided virus inactivation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v13030530","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,23]],"date-time":"2021-03-23T23:59:41Z","timestamp":1616543981000},"page":"530","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["A Comparison of Porphyrin Photosensitizers in Photodynamic Inactivation of RNA and DNA Bacteriophages"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Joe","family":"Heffron","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering, Marquette University, 1637 W. Wisconsin Ave, Milwaukee, WI 53233, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Matthew","family":"Bork","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, Rockford University, 5050 E. State St., Rockford, IL 61108, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4858-2834","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Brooke K.","family":"Mayer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering, Marquette University, 1637 W. Wisconsin Ave, Milwaukee, WI 53233, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1920-0788","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Troy","family":"Skwor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Wisconsin\u2013Milwaukee, 2400 E. Hartford Ave., Milwaukee, WI 53211, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2005). World Health Organization Viruses. Water Recreation and Disease, IWA Publishing."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2012.05.014","article-title":"Pre-analytical and analytical procedures for the detection of enteric viruses and enterovirus in water samples","volume":"184","author":"Pang","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Virol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1002\/j.1551-8833.2003.tb10458.x","article-title":"Occurrence of viruses in US groundwaters","volume":"95","author":"Abbaszadegan","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Am. 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