{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,6]],"date-time":"2025-11-06T12:27:42Z","timestamp":1762432062368,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":275,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,21]],"date-time":"2021-04-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1618963200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003751","name":"Ministerio de Sanidad, Servicios Sociales e Igualdad","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["RTA-RD16\/0017\/0022","2016I073"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RTA-RD16\/0017\/0022","2016I073"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003751","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003329","name":"Ministerio de Econom\u00eda y Competitividad","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PSI2016-80541-P"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PSI2016-80541-P"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003329","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004837","name":"Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovaci\u00f3n","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PID2019-111594RB-I00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PID2019-111594RB-I00"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004837","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000780","name":"European Union","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["JUST\/2017\/AG-DRUG-806996-JUSTSO"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JUST\/2017\/AG-DRUG-806996-JUSTSO"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000780","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Psychostimulant use is a major comorbidity in people living with HIV, which was initially explained by them adopting risky behaviors that facilitate HIV transmission. However, the effects of drug use on the immune system might also influence this phenomenon. Psychostimulants act on peripheral immune cells even before they reach the central nervous system (CNS) and their effects on immunity are likely to influence HIV infection. Beyond their canonical activities, classic neurotransmitters and neuromodulators are expressed by peripheral immune cells (e.g., dopamine and enkephalins), which display immunomodulatory properties and could be influenced by psychostimulants. Immune receptors, like Toll-like receptors (TLRs) on microglia, are modulated by cocaine and amphetamine exposure. Since peripheral immunocytes also express TLRs, they may be similarly affected by psychostimulants. In this review, we will summarize how psychostimulants are currently thought to influence peripheral immunity, mainly focusing on catecholamines, enkephalins and TLR4, and shed light on how these drugs might affect HIV infection. We will try to shift from the classic CNS perspective and adopt a more holistic view, addressing the potential impact of psychostimulants on the peripheral immune system and how their systemic effects could influence HIV infection.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v13050722","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,21]],"date-time":"2021-04-21T21:25:10Z","timestamp":1619040310000},"page":"722","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["A \u201cDrug-Dependent\u201d Immune System Can Compromise Protection against Infection: The Relationships between Psychostimulants and HIV"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9289-6881","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mar\u00eda Amparo","family":"Assis","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Ciencias M\u00e9dicas, Universidad Nacional de Santiago del Estero (UNSE), Santiago del Estero G4200, Argentina"},{"name":"Laboratorio de Biolog\u00eda Molecular, Inmunolog\u00eda y Microbiolog\u00eda, Instituto Multidisciplinario de Salud, Tecnolog\u00eda y Desarrollo (IMSaTeD), CONICET-UNSE, Santiago del Estero G4206, Argentina"},{"name":"Departamento de Psicobiolog\u00eda, Facultad de Psicolog\u00eda, Universidad Nacional de Educaci\u00f3n a Distancia (UNED), 28040 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Pedro Gabriel","family":"Carranza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Ciencias M\u00e9dicas, Universidad Nacional de Santiago del Estero (UNSE), Santiago del Estero G4200, Argentina"},{"name":"Laboratorio de Biolog\u00eda Molecular, Inmunolog\u00eda y Microbiolog\u00eda, Instituto Multidisciplinario de Salud, Tecnolog\u00eda y Desarrollo (IMSaTeD), CONICET-UNSE, Santiago del Estero G4206, Argentina"},{"name":"Facultad de Agronom\u00eda y Agroindustrias, Universidad Nacional de Santiago del Estero, Santiago del Estero G4206, Argentina"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Emilio","family":"Ambrosio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Psicobiolog\u00eda, Facultad de Psicolog\u00eda, Universidad Nacional de Educaci\u00f3n a Distancia (UNED), 28040 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/S0165-5728(97)00230-0","article-title":"In vivo effects of cocaine on immune cell function","volume":"83","author":"Pellegrino","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. 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