{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,16]],"date-time":"2026-09-16T18:51:42Z","timestamp":1789584702082,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":27,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,26]],"date-time":"2021-05-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1621987200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004359","name":"Vetenskapsr\u00e5det","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2017-05807"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2017-05807"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004359","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004359","name":"Vetenskapsr\u00e5det","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2018-02569"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018-02569"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004359","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"the European Union's Horizon 2020 research innovation program","award":["874735"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["874735"]}]},{"name":"Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation and Science for Life Laboratory Uppsala","award":["Nevermore Covid"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Nevermore Covid"]}]},{"name":"Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation and Science for Life Laboratory Uppsala","award":["SiCoV"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SiCoV"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Due to the current, rapidly increasing Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, efficient and highly specific diagnostic methods are needed. The receptor-binding part of the spike (S) protein, S1, has been suggested to be highly virus-specific; it does not cross-react with antibodies against other coronaviruses. Three recombinant partial S proteins of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) expressed in mammalian or baculovirus-insect cells were evaluated as antigens in a Luminex-based suspension immunoassay (SIA). The best performing antigen (S1; amino acids 16-685) was selected and further evaluated by serum samples from 76 Swedish patients or convalescents with COVID-19 (previously PCR and\/or serologically confirmed), 200 pre-COVID-19 individuals (180 blood donors and 20 infants), and 10 patients with acute Epstein-Barr virus infection. All 76 positive samples showed detectable antibodies to S1, while none of the 210 negative controls gave a false positive antibody reaction. We further compared the COVID-19 SIA with a commercially available enzyme immunoassay and a previously evaluated COVID-19 rapid antibody test. The results revealed an overall assay sensitivity of 100%, a specificity of 100% for both IgM and IgG, a quantitative ability at concentrations up to 25 BAU\/mL, and a better performance as compared to the commercial assays, suggesting the COVID-19 SIA as a most valuable tool for efficient laboratory-based serology.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v13060993","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,26]],"date-time":"2021-05-26T21:56:44Z","timestamp":1622066204000},"page":"993","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Diagnostic Potential of a Luminex-Based Coronavirus Disease 2019 Suspension Immunoassay (COVID-19 SIA) for the Detection of Antibodies against SARS-CoV-2"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2239-9078","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tove","family":"Hoffman","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Zoonosis Science Centre, Uppsala University, Husargatan 3, SE-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Linda","family":"Kolstad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Zoonosis Science Centre, Uppsala University, Husargatan 3, SE-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1175-0398","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Johanna F.","family":"Lindahl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Zoonosis Science Centre, Uppsala University, Husargatan 3, SE-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1184-9267","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bo","family":"Albinsson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Zoonosis Science Centre, Uppsala University, Husargatan 3, SE-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden"},{"name":"Laboratory of Clinical Microbiology, Uppsala University Hospital, Dag Hammarskj\u00f6lds v\u00e4g 38, SE-752 37 Uppsala, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5789-8777","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anders","family":"Bergqvist","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Clinical Microbiology, Uppsala University Hospital, Dag Hammarskj\u00f6lds v\u00e4g 38, SE-752 37 Uppsala, Sweden"},{"name":"Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, Dag Hammarskj\u00f6lds v\u00e4g 38, SE-751 84 Uppsala, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0229-093X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bengt","family":"R\u00f6nnberg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Zoonosis Science Centre, Uppsala University, Husargatan 3, SE-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden"},{"name":"Laboratory of Clinical Microbiology, Uppsala University Hospital, Dag Hammarskj\u00f6lds v\u00e4g 38, SE-752 37 Uppsala, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8608-6551","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"\u00c5ke","family":"Lundkvist","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Zoonosis Science Centre, Uppsala University, Husargatan 3, SE-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"World Health Organisation (2020, February 04). WHO Director-General\u2019s Opening Remarks at the Media Briefing on COVID-19\u201411 March 2020. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/director-general\/speeches\/detail\/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks-at-the-media-briefing-on-covid-19."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Coronaviridae Study Group of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (2020). The species severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus: Classifying 2019-nCoV and naming it SARS-CoV-2. Nat. Microbiol., 5, 536\u2013544.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41564-020-0695-z"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.02.058","article-title":"Structure, function, and antigenicity of the SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein","volume":"181","author":"Walls","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wan, Y., Shang, J., Graham, R., Baric, R.S., and Li, F. (2020). Receptor recognition by the novel coronavirus from Wuhan: An analysis based on decade-long structural studies of SARS coronavirus. J. Virol., 94.","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00127-20"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2179-y","article-title":"Structural basis of receptor recognition by SARS-CoV-2","volume":"581","author":"Shang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30251-8","article-title":"Genomic characterisation and epidemiology of 2019 novel coronavirus: Implications for virus origins and receptor binding","volume":"395","author":"Lu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2249","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.8259","article-title":"Interpreting diagnostic tests for SARS-CoV-2","volume":"323","author":"Sethuraman","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pathol.2020.09.011","article-title":"Laboratory diagnosis of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2","volume":"52","author":"Gulholm","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pathology"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"995","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jit609","article-title":"Evaluation of serologic and antigenic relationships between middle eastern respiratory syndrome coronavirus and other coronaviruses to develop vaccine platforms for the rapid response to emerging coronaviruses","volume":"209","author":"Agnihothram","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1478","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2607.200841","article-title":"Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2-specific antibody responses in coronavirus disease patients","volume":"26","author":"Okba","year":"2020","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20441","DOI":"10.2807\/1560-7917.ES2013.18.14.20441","article-title":"Specific serology for emerging human coronaviruses by protein microarray","volume":"18","author":"Reusken","year":"2013","journal-title":"Euro Surveill."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30211-7","article-title":"Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: A descriptive study","volume":"395","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"1789036","article-title":"High seroprevalence of SARS-CoV-2 in elderly care employees in Sweden","volume":"10","author":"Lindahl","year":"2020","journal-title":"Infect. Ecol. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.7326\/M20-3012","article-title":"Prevalence of asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection: A narrative review","volume":"173","author":"Oran","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"1696132","article-title":"Antibody responses to tick-borne encephalitis virus non-structural protein 1 and whole virus antigen-a new tool in the assessment of suspected vaccine failure patients","volume":"9","author":"Albinsson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Infect. Ecol. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17-00838","DOI":"10.2807\/1560-7917.ES.2018.23.3.17-00838","article-title":"Distinction between serological responses following tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) infection vs vaccination, Sweden 2017","volume":"23","author":"Albinsson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Euro Surveill."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1007\/s00430-017-0517-y","article-title":"Compensating for cross-reactions using avidity and computation in a suspension multiplex immunoassay for serotyping of Zika versus other flavivirus infections","volume":"206","author":"Gustafsson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Med. Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"1350086","article-title":"Serogrouping and seroepidemiology of North European hantaviruses using a novel broadly targeted synthetic nucleoprotein antigen array","volume":"7","author":"Vapalahti","year":"2017","journal-title":"Infect. Ecol. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.2807\/1560-7917.ES.2020.25.3.2000045","article-title":"Detection of 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) by real-time RT-PCR","volume":"25","author":"Corman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Euro Surveill."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2020). CDC 2019-Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) Real-Rime RT-PCR Diagnostic Panel, CDC, Division of Viral Diseases."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1038\/267052a0","article-title":"Polyclonal Ig production after Epstein-Barr virus infection of human lymphocytes in vitro","volume":"267","author":"Rosen","year":"1977","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)31483-5","article-title":"Prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 in Spain (ENE-COVID): A nationwide, population-based seroepidemiological study","volume":"396","author":"Pollan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bryan, A., Pepper, G., Werner, M., Fink, S.L., Morishima, C., Chaudhary Jerome, K.R., Mathias, P.C., and Greninger, A.L. (2020). Performance characteristics of the Abbot Architect SARS-CoV-2 IgG assay and seroprevalence in Boise, Idaho. J. Clin. Microbiol., 58.","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00941-20"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Harritshoj, L., Gybel-Brask, M., Afzai, S., Kamstrup, P.R., Joergensen, C.S., Thomsen, M.K., Hilsted, L.M., Friis-Hansen, L.J., Szecsi, P.B., and Pedersen, L. (2021). Comparison of sixteen serological SARS-CoV-2 immunoassays in sixteen laboratories. J. Clin. Microbiol., 59.","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.02596-20"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fenwick, C., Croxatto, A., Coste, A.T., Pojer, F., Andre, C., Pellaton, C., Farina, A., Campos, J., Hacker, D., and Lau, K. (2021). Changes in SARS-CoV-2 spike versus nucleoprotein antibody responses impact the estimates of infections in population-based seroprevalence studies. J. Virol., 95.","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01828-20"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grandjean, L., Saso, A., Ortiz, A., Lam, T., Hatcher, J., Thistlethwaite, R., Harris, M., Best, T., Johnson, M., and Wagstaffe, H. (2020). Humoral response dynamics following infection with SARS-CoV-2. medRixv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.07.16.20155663"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, J., Mao, T., Li, S., Wu, L., Xu, X., Li, H., Xu, C., Su, F., Dai, J., and Shi, J. (2020). Long period dynamics of viral load and antibodies for SARS-CoV-2 infection: An observational cohort study. medRixv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.04.22.20071258"}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/13\/6\/993\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:08:20Z","timestamp":1760162900000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/13\/6\/993"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,26]]},"references-count":27,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6]]}},"alternative-id":["v13060993"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v13060993","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,26]]}}}