{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,29]],"date-time":"2026-05-29T13:58:38Z","timestamp":1780063118997,"version":"3.54.0"},"reference-count":70,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,31]],"date-time":"2021-05-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1622419200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["31170123"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["31170123"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Due to the increasing spread of multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria, phage therapy is considered one of the most promising methods for addressing MDR bacteria. Escherichia coli lives symbiotically in the intestines of humans and some animals, and most strains are beneficial in terms of maintaining a healthy digestive tract. However, some E. coli strains can cause serious zoonotic diseases, including diarrhea, pneumonia, urinary tract infections, and hemolytic uremic syndrome. In this study, we characterized a newly isolated Myoviridae phage, vB_EcoM_APEC. The phage vB_EcoM_APEC was able to infect E. coli APEC O78, which is the most common MDR E. coli serotype in turkeys. Additionally, the phage\u2019s host range included Klebsiella pneumoniae and other E. coli strains. The genome of phage vB_EcoM_APEC (GenBank accession number MT664721) was 35,832 bp in length, with 52 putative open reading frames (ORFs) and a GC content of 41.3%. The genome of vB_EcoM_APEC exhibited low similarity (79.1% identity and 4.0% coverage) to the genome of Acinetobacter phage vB_AbaM_IME284 (GenBank no. MH853787.1) according to the nucleotide Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLASTn). Phylogenetic analysis revealed that vB_EcoM_APEC was a novel phage, and its genome sequence showed low similarity to other available phage genomes. Gene annotation indicated that the protein encoded by orf11 was an endolysin designated as LysO78, which exhibited 64.7% identity (91.0% coverage) with the putative endolysin of Acinetobacter baumannii phage vB_AbaM_B9. The LysO78 protein belongs to glycoside hydrolase family 19, and was described as being a chitinase class I protein. LysO78 is a helical protein with 12 \u03b1-helices containing a large domain and a small domain in terms of the predicted three-dimensional structure. The results of site-directed mutagenesis indicated that LysO78 contained the catalytic residues E54 and E64. The purified endolysin exhibited broad-spectrum bacteriolytic activity against Gram-negative strains, including the genera Klebsiella, Salmonella, Shigella, Burkholderia, Yersinia, and Pseudomonas, as well as the species Chitinimonas arctica, E. coli, Ralstonia solanacearum, and A. baumannii. An enzymatic assay showed that LysO78 had highly lytic peptidoglycan hydrolases activity (64,620,000 units\/mg) against E. coli APEC O78, and that LysO78 had lytic activity in the temperature range of 4\u201385 \u00b0C, with an optimal temperature of 28 \u00b0C and optimal pH of 8.0, and was active at pH 3.0\u201312.0. Overall, the results suggested that LysO78 might be a promising therapeutic agent for controlling MDR E. coli APEC O78 and nosocomial infections caused by multidrug-resistant bacteria.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v13061034","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,31]],"date-time":"2021-05-31T03:45:29Z","timestamp":1622432729000},"page":"1034","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["Genomic Analysis of a Novel Phage Infecting the Turkey Pathogen Escherichia coli APEC O78 and Its Endolysin Activity"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Sangsang","family":"Deng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100039, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qiang","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"China Center for Type Culture Collection(CCTCC), College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yajuan","family":"Fu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100039, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Leiqin","family":"Liang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100039, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yan","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6357-2378","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fang","family":"Peng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"China Center for Type Culture Collection(CCTCC), College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Meiying","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106617","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2020.106617","article-title":"Heterologous expression of Intimin and IpaB fusion protein in Lactococcus lactis and its mucosal delivery elicit protection against pathogenicity of Escherichia coli O157 and Shigella flexneri in a murine model","volume":"85","author":"Sagi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0002613","DOI":"10.1128\/genomeA.00026-13","article-title":"Complete genome sequence of the avian pathogenic Escherichia coli strain APEC O78","volume":"1","author":"Mangiamele","year":"2013","journal-title":"Genome Announc."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kong, L.C., Guo, X., Wang, Z., Gao, Y.H., Jia, B.Y., Liu, S.M., and Ma, H.X. (2017). Whole genome sequencing of an ExPEC that caused fatal pneumonia at a pig farm in Changchun, China. BMC Vet. Res., 13.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-017-1093-5"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1007\/s11262-015-1195-8","article-title":"Genome sequencing and analysis of an Escherichia coli phage vB_EcoM-ep3 with a novel lysin, Lysep3","volume":"50","author":"Lv","year":"2015","journal-title":"Virus Genes"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1228","DOI":"10.1021\/acsinfecdis.0c00016","article-title":"Combined Efficacy of an Antimicrobial Cationic Peptide Polymer with Conventional Antibiotics to Combat Multidrug-Resistant Pathogens","volume":"6","author":"Thappeta","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34338","DOI":"10.1038\/srep34338","article-title":"Biodiversity of bacteriophages: Morphological and biological properties of a large group of phages isolated from urban sewage","volume":"6","author":"Gasior","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2012.11.003","article-title":"Phage-bacteria infection networks","volume":"21","author":"Weitz","year":"2013","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"(2021, May 21). Why Is It So Hard to Develop New Antibiotics?. Available online: https:\/\/wellcome.org\/news\/why-is-it-so-hard-develop-new-antibiotics."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.19-0770","article-title":"Superbug vs. Superphage: A Review of The Perfect Predator and an Interview with Dr. Chip Schooley","volume":"102","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mib.2005.06.002","article-title":"Bacteriophage endolysins\u2014Current state of research and applications","volume":"8","author":"Loessner","year":"2005","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"798","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1011921108","article-title":"Holin triggering in real time","volume":"108","author":"White","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-394438-2.00007-4","article-title":"Endolysins as Antimicrobials","volume":"83","author":"Nelson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Adv. Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mib.2007.08.002","article-title":"Taking aim on bacterial pathogens: From phage therapy to enzybiotics","volume":"10","author":"Hermoso","year":"2007","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"540","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmb.2006.11.056","article-title":"The 1.6 A crystal structure of the catalytic domain of PlyB, a bacteriophage lysin active against Bacillus anthracis","volume":"366","author":"Porter","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1552","DOI":"10.4014\/jmb.2005.05030","article-title":"Characterization of Endolysin LysECP26 Derived from rV5-like Phage vB_EcoM-ECP26 for Inactivation of Escherichia coli O157:H7","volume":"30","author":"Park","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1111\/mmi.12555","article-title":"Structure of bacteriophage SPN1S endolysin reveals an unusual two-module fold for the peptidoglycan lytic and binding activity","volume":"92","author":"Park","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mol. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1282","DOI":"10.1111\/jam.13251","article-title":"In vitro study of the antibacterial effect of the bacteriophage T5 thermostable endolysin on Escherichia coli cells","volume":"121","author":"Shavrina","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637313","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2021.637313","article-title":"A Novel Acinetobacter baumannii Bacteriophage Endolysin LysAB54 With High Antibacterial Activity Against Multiple Gram-Negative Microbes","volume":"11","author":"Khan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuan, Y., Li, X., Wang, L., Li, G., Cong, C., Li, R., Cui, H., Murtaza, B., and Xu, Y. (2021). The endolysin of the Acinetobacter baumannii phage vB_AbaP_D2 shows broad antibacterial activity. Microb. Biotechnol.","DOI":"10.1111\/1751-7915.13594"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copbio.2015.10.005","article-title":"Bacteriophage endolysins: Applications for food safety","volume":"37","author":"Schmelcher","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chang, Y. (2020). Bacteriophage-Derived Endolysins Applied as Potent Biocontrol Agents to Enhance Food Safety. Microorganisms, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms8050724"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1147","DOI":"10.2217\/fmb.12.97","article-title":"Bacteriophage endolysins as novel antimicrobials","volume":"7","author":"Schmelcher","year":"2012","journal-title":"Future Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bolocan, A.S., Callanan, J., Forde, A., Ross, P., and Hill, C. (2016). Phage therapy targeting Escherichia coli\u2014A story with no end?. FEMS Microbiol. Lett., 363.","DOI":"10.1093\/femsle\/fnw256"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zalewska-Piatek, B., and Piatek, R. (2020). Phage Therapy as a Novel Strategy in the Treatment of Urinary Tract Infections Caused by E. coli. Antibiotics, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics9060304"},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"1686822","article-title":"Evaluation of bacteriophage efficacy in reducing the impact of single and mixed infections with Escherichia coli and infectious bronchitis in chickens","volume":"9","author":"Tawakol","year":"2019","journal-title":"Infect. Ecol. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mirzaei, M.K., and Nilsson, A.S. (2015). Isolation of Phages for Phage Therapy: A Comparison of Spot Tests and Efficiency of Plating Analyses for Determination of Host Range and Efficacy. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0127606"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuan, Y., Gao, M., Wu, D., Liu, P., and Wu, Y. (2012). Genome characteristics of a novel phage from Bacillus thuringiensis showing high similarity with phage from Bacillus cereus. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0037557"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Maio, N., Shaw, L.P., Hubbard, A., George, S., Sanderson, N.D., Swann, J., Wick, R., AbuOun, M., Stubberfield, E., and Hoosdally, S.J. (2019). Comparison of long-read sequencing technologies in the hybrid assembly of complex bacterial genomes. Microb. Genom., 5.","DOI":"10.1099\/mgen.0.000294"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aziz, R.K., Bartels, D., Best, A.A., DeJongh, M., Disz, T., Edwards, R.A., Formsma, K., Gerdes, S., Glass, E.M., and Kubal, M. (2008). The RAST Server: Rapid annotations using subsystems technology. BMC Genom., 9.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2164-9-75"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D206","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkt1226","article-title":"The SEED and the Rapid Annotation of microbial genomes using Subsystems Technology (RAST)","volume":"42","author":"Overbeek","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3389","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/25.17.3389","article-title":"Gapped BLAST and PSI-BLAST: A new generation of protein database search programs","volume":"25","author":"Altschul","year":"1997","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D138","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkh121","article-title":"The Pfam protein families database","volume":"32","author":"Bateman","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"951","DOI":"10.1093\/bioinformatics\/bti125","article-title":"Protein homology detection by HMM-HMM comparison","volume":"21","author":"Soding","year":"2005","journal-title":"Bioinformatics"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D493","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkx922","article-title":"20 years of the SMART protein domain annotation resource","volume":"46","author":"Letunic","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"W636","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkz268","article-title":"The EMBL-EBI search and sequence analysis tools APIs in 2019","volume":"47","author":"Madeira","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"W54","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkw413","article-title":"tRNAscan-SE On-line: Integrating search and context for analysis of transfer RNA genes","volume":"44","author":"Lowe","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3100","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkm160","article-title":"RNAmmer: Consistent and rapid annotation of ribosomal RNA genes","volume":"35","author":"Lagesen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1547","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/msy096","article-title":"MEGA X: Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis across Computing Platforms","volume":"35","author":"Kumar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4673","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/22.22.4673","article-title":"Clustal-W\u2014Improving the Sensitivity of Progressive Multiple Sequence Alignment through Sequence Weighting, Position-Specific Gap Penalties and Weight Matrix Choice","volume":"22","author":"Thompson","year":"1994","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1188","DOI":"10.1101\/gr.849004","article-title":"WebLogo: A sequence logo generator","volume":"14","author":"Crooks","year":"2004","journal-title":"Genome Res."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6097","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/18.20.6097","article-title":"Sequence Logos\u2014A New Way to Display Consensus Sequences","volume":"18","author":"Schneider","year":"1990","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D265","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkz991","article-title":"CDD\/SPARCLE: The conserved domain database in 2020","volume":"48","author":"Lu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"W469","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkq406","article-title":"3DLigandSite: Predicting ligand-binding sites using similar structures","volume":"38","author":"Wass","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2126","DOI":"10.1107\/S0907444904019158","article-title":"Coot: Model-building tools for molecular graphics","volume":"60","author":"Emsley","year":"2004","journal-title":"Acta Crystallogr. D Biol. Crystallogr."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"U1371","article-title":"PyMOL. molecular viewer: Updates and refinements","volume":"238","author":"DeLano","year":"2009","journal-title":"Abstr. Pap. Am. Chem. S."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"531","article-title":"Protein identification and analysis tools in the ExPASy server","volume":"112","author":"Wilkins","year":"1999","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4369","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-012-4294-7","article-title":"Characterization of five novel endolysins from Gram-negative infecting bacteriophages","volume":"97","author":"Walmagh","year":"2013","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbbm.2006.10.009","article-title":"A standardized approach for accurate quantification of murein hydrolase activity in high-throughput assays","volume":"70","author":"Briers","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Biochem. Biophys. Methods"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuan, Y., Peng, Q., Yang, S., Zhang, S., Fu, Y., Wu, Y., and Gao, M. (2018). Isolation of A Novel Bacillus thuringiensis Phage Representing A New Phage Lineage and Characterization of Its Endolysin. Viruses, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/v10110611"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oliveira, H., Thiagarajan, V., Walmagh, M., Sillankorva, S., Lavigne, R., Neves-Petersen, M.T., Kluskens, L.D., and Azeredo, J. (2014). A thermostable Salmonella phage endolysin, Lys68, with broad bactericidal properties against gram-negative pathogens in presence of weak acids. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0108376"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-011-3104-y","article-title":"Antibacterial activity of Acinetobacter baumannii phage varphiAB2 endolysin (LysAB2) against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria","volume":"90","author":"Lai","year":"2011","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2958.2000.01995.x","article-title":"Role of the Gp16 lytic transglycosylase motif in bacteriophage T7 virions at the initiation of infection","volume":"37","author":"Moak","year":"2000","journal-title":"Mol. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2461","DOI":"10.1101\/gad.1584907","article-title":"Cro\u2019s role in the CI Cro bistable switch is critical for {lambda}\u2019s transition from lysogeny to lytic development","volume":"21","author":"Schubert","year":"2007","journal-title":"Genes Dev."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1007\/s11103-009-9523-9","article-title":"The first crystal structuRes. of a family 19 class IV chitinase: The enzyme from Norway spruce","volume":"71","author":"Ubhayasekera","year":"2009","journal-title":"Plant Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4889","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1742-4658.2006.05487.x","article-title":"Crystal structure and enzymatic properties of a bacterial family 19 chitinase reveal differences from plant enzymes","volume":"273","author":"Hoell","year":"2006","journal-title":"FEBS J."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"793","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbapap.2014.02.013","article-title":"Crystal structure of a \u201cloopless\u201d GH19 chitinase in complex with chitin tetrasaccharide spanning the catalytic center","volume":"1844","author":"Ohnuma","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"W351","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkw357","article-title":"Dali server update","volume":"44","author":"Holm","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4276","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.95.8.4276","article-title":"The role of enzyme distortion in the single displacement mechanism of family 19 chitinases","volume":"95","author":"Brameld","year":"1998","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1334","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2958.2007.05870.x","article-title":"Muralytic activity and modular structure of the endolysins of Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteriophages phiKZ and EL","volume":"65","author":"Briers","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mol. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.64.2.575-580.1998","article-title":"Prevalence of broad-host-range lytic bacteriophages of Sphaerotilus natans, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa","volume":"64","author":"Jensen","year":"1998","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1128\/JB.188.2.619-632.2006","article-title":"Dissection of the bacteriophage Mu strong gyrase site (SGS): Significance of the SGS right arm in Mu biology and DNA gyrase mechanism","volume":"188","author":"Oram","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1038\/286218a0","article-title":"Invertible DNA Determines Host Specificity of Bacteriophage-Mu","volume":"286","author":"Vandeputte","year":"1980","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"W16","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkw387","article-title":"PHASTER: A better, faster version of the PHAST phage search tool","volume":"44","author":"Arndt","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Mullan, M. (2021, May 21). Factors Affecting Plaque Formation by Bacteriophages. Available online: https:\/\/www.dairyscience.info\/index.php\/enumeration-of-lactococcal-bacteriophages\/factors-affecting-plaque-formation.html."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"466","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mib.2005.06.003","article-title":"The biology of restriction and anti-restriction","volume":"8","author":"Tock","year":"2005","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mib.2005.06.006","article-title":"Phage abortive infection in lactococci: Variations on a theme","volume":"8","author":"Chopin","year":"2005","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"894","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0808832106","article-title":"The phage abortive infection system, ToxIN, functions as a protein-RNA toxin-antitoxin pair","volume":"106","author":"Fineran","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molcel.2014.03.011","article-title":"CRISPR-Cas Systems: Prokaryotes Upgrade to Adaptive Immunity","volume":"54","author":"Barrangou","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mol. Cell"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro2315","article-title":"Bacteriophage resistance mechanisms","volume":"8","author":"Labrie","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3302","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2018.03302","article-title":"A Novel Phage PD-6A3, and Its Endolysin Ply6A3, With Extended Lytic Activity Against Acinetobacter baumannii","volume":"9","author":"Wu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/13\/6\/1034\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:09:12Z","timestamp":1760162952000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/13\/6\/1034"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,31]]},"references-count":70,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6]]}},"alternative-id":["v13061034"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v13061034","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,31]]}}}