{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,20]],"date-time":"2026-10-20T16:52:34Z","timestamp":1792515154438,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":71,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,16]],"date-time":"2021-07-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1626393600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003042","name":"Else Kr\u00f6ner-Fresenius-Stiftung","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["N\/A"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["N\/A"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003042","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100014837","name":"Rudolf Ackermann Stiftung","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["N\/A"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["N\/A"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100014837","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100010380","name":"Stiftung Universit\u00e4tsmedizin Essen","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["N\/A"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["N\/A"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100010380","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Herpes simplex viruses (HSV) are ubiquitously distributed with a seroprevalence ranging up to 95% in the adult population. Refractory viral infections with herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) and type 2 (HSV-2) represent a major global health issue. In particular, the increasing occurrence of resistance to conventional antiviral drugs make the therapy of such infections even more challenging. For instance, the frequent and long-term use of acyclovir and other nucleoside analogues targeting the viral DNA-polymerase enhance the development of resistant viruses. Particularly, the incidental increase of those strains in immunocompromised patients is alarming and represent a major health concern. Alternative treatment concepts are clearly needed. Natural products such as herbal medicines showed antiherpetic activity in vitro and in vivo and proved to be an excellent source for the discovery and isolation of novel antivirals. By this means, numerous plant-derived compounds with antiviral or antimicrobial activity could be isolated. Natural medicines and their ingredients are well-tolerated and could be a good alternative for treating herpes simplex virus infections. This review provides an overview of the recent status of natural sources such as plants, bacteria, fungi, and their ingredients with antiviral activity against herpes simplex viruses. Furthermore, we highlight the most potent herbal medicines and ingredients as promising candidates for clinical investigation and give an overview about the most important drug classes along with their potential antiviral mechanisms. The content of this review is based on articles that were published between 1996 and 2021.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v13071386","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,18]],"date-time":"2021-07-18T21:18:52Z","timestamp":1626643132000},"page":"1386","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":51,"title":["Antiviral Active Compounds Derived from Natural Sources against Herpes Simplex Viruses"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5122-4213","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lukas","family":"van de Sand","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"West German Centre of Infectious Diseases, Department of Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, 45147 Essen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0955-1453","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maren","family":"Bormann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"West German Centre of Infectious Diseases, Department of Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, 45147 Essen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yasmin","family":"Schmitz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Virology, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, 45147 Essen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christiane Silke","family":"Heilingloh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"West German Centre of Infectious Diseases, Department of Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, 45147 Essen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Oliver","family":"Witzke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"West German Centre of Infectious Diseases, Department of Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, 45147 Essen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9502-9903","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adalbert","family":"Krawczyk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"West German Centre of Infectious Diseases, Department of Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, 45147 Essen, Germany"},{"name":"Institute of Virology, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, 45147 Essen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1136\/sti.2003.005850","article-title":"The seroepidemiology of herpes simplex virus type 1 and 2 in Europe","volume":"80","author":"Pebody","year":"2004","journal-title":"Sex. Transm. Infect."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1295","DOI":"10.1086\/606053","article-title":"Clinical correlates of herpes simplex virus viremia among hospitalized adults","volume":"49","author":"Berrington","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis. Off. Publ. Infect. Dis. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.108.2.230","article-title":"Safety and efficacy of high-dose intravenous acyclovir in the management of neonatal herpes simplex virus infections","volume":"108","author":"Kimberlin","year":"2001","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Akinyi, B., Odhiambo, C., Otieno, F., Inzaule, S., Oswago, S., Kerubo, E., Ndivo, R., and Zeh, C. (2017). Prevalence, incidence and correlates of HSV-2 infection in an HIV incidence adolescent and adult cohort study in western Kenya. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0178907"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/ijos.2016.3","article-title":"New strategies against drug resistance to herpes simplex virus","volume":"8","author":"Jiang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Oral Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1804","DOI":"10.1086\/593214","article-title":"Herpes simplex virus (HSV)-suppressive therapy decreases plasma and genital HIV-1 levels in HSV-2\/HIV-1 coinfected women: A randomized, placebo-controlled, cross-over trial","volume":"198","author":"Baeten","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1097\/QAD.0b013e32831db217","article-title":"Impact of aciclovir on genital and plasma HIV-1 RNA in HSV-2\/HIV-1 co-infected women: A randomized placebo-controlled trial in South Africa","volume":"23","author":"Delany","year":"2009","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"790","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa062607","article-title":"Reduction of HIV-1 RNA levels with therapy to suppress herpes simplex virus","volume":"356","author":"Nagot","year":"2007","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31289","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.C800188200","article-title":"The antiherpetic drug acyclovir inhibits HIV replication and selects the V75I reverse transcriptase multidrug resistance mutation","volume":"283","author":"McMahon","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1234","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmb.2007.11.021","article-title":"Mechanistic insights into the role of Val75 of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase in misinsertion and mispair extension fidelity of DNA synthesis","volume":"375","author":"Matamoros","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"448","DOI":"10.1016\/j.survophthal.2012.01.005","article-title":"Herpes simplex epithelial and stromal keratitis: An epidemiologic update","volume":"57","author":"Farooq","year":"2012","journal-title":"Surv. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcv.2004.04.002","article-title":"Survey of acyclovir-resistant herpes simplex virus in the Netherlands: Prevalence and characterization","volume":"32","author":"Schuurman","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Clin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1297","DOI":"10.3851\/IMP1870","article-title":"Novel resistance-associated mutations of thymidine kinase and DNA polymerase genes of herpes simplex virus type 1 and type 2","volume":"16","author":"Sauerbrei","year":"2011","journal-title":"Antivir. Ther."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"903","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.bmt.1702591","article-title":"Treatment of an acyclovir and foscarnet-resistant herpes simplex virus infection with cidofovir in a child after an unrelated bone marrow transplant","volume":"26","author":"Blot","year":"2000","journal-title":"Bone Marrow Transpl."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2015.09.003","article-title":"Harmine blocks herpes simplex virus infection through downregulating cellular NF-\u03baB and MAPK pathways induced by oxidative stress","volume":"123","author":"Chen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2017.04.003","article-title":"Inhibitors of dual-specificity tyrosine phosphorylation-regulated kinases (DYRK) exert a strong anti-herpesviral activity","volume":"143","author":"Hutterer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"718","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2010.10.059","article-title":"The effect of emodin, an anthraquinone derivative extracted from the roots of Rheum tanguticum, against herpes simplex virus in vitro and in vivo","volume":"133","author":"Xiong","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1293","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02978215","article-title":"Antiherpetic activities of flavonoids against herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) and type 2 (HSV-2) in vitro","volume":"28","author":"Lyu","year":"2005","journal-title":"Arch. Pharm. Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"962","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00825-07","article-title":"Epigallocatechin gallate inactivates clinical isolates of herpes simplex virus","volume":"52","author":"Isaacs","year":"2008","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2012.11.006","article-title":"Inhibition of herpes simplex virus type 1 with the modified green tea polyphenol palmitoyl-epigallocatechin gallate","volume":"52","author":"Adams","year":"2013","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2854","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.46.9.2854-2864.2002","article-title":"Samarangenin B from Limonium sinense suppresses herpes simplex virus type 1 replication in Vero cells by regulation of viral macromolecular synthesis","volume":"46","author":"Kuo","year":"2002","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2000-8540","article-title":"Anti-herpes simplex virus type-1 flavonoids and a new flavanone from the root of Limonium sinense","volume":"66","author":"Lin","year":"2000","journal-title":"Planta Med."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-3542(02)00077-3","article-title":"Antiherpes simplex virus type 2 activity of casuarinin from the bark of Terminalia arjuna Linn","volume":"55","author":"Cheng","year":"2002","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2323","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsb.2020.06.008","article-title":"Inhibitory effects of baicalein against herpes simplex virus type 1","volume":"10","author":"Luo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Pharm. Sin. B"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5646","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.05531-11","article-title":"Digallate dimers of (-)-epigallocatechin gallate inactivate herpes simplex virus","volume":"55","author":"Isaacs","year":"2011","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2017.06.010","article-title":"Anti-herpes simplex virus type 1 activity of Houttuynoid A, a flavonoid from Houttuynia cordata Thunb","volume":"144","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hung, P.Y., Ho, B.C., Lee, S.Y., Chang, S.Y., Kao, C.L., Lee, S.S., and Lee, C.N. (2015). Houttuynia cordata targets the beginning stage of herpes simplex virus infection. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0115475"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkg291","article-title":"In vitro antiviral activities of Caesalpinia pulcherrima and its related flavonoids","volume":"52","author":"Chiang","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"738","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micinf.2004.03.009","article-title":"Mechanism of action of the suppression of herpes simplex virus type 2 replication by pterocarnin A","volume":"6","author":"Cheng","year":"2004","journal-title":"Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bag, P., Ojha, D., Mukherjee, H., Halder, U.C., Mondal, S., Chandra, N.S., Nandi, S., Sharon, A., Sarkar, M.C., and Chakrabarti, S. (2013). An Indole Alkaloid from a Tribal Folklore Inhibits Immediate Early Event in HSV-2 Infected Cells with Therapeutic Efficacy in Vaginally Infected Mice. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0077937"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2014.02.007","article-title":"A dihydro-pyrido-indole potently inhibits HSV-1 infection by interfering the viral immediate early transcriptional events","volume":"105","author":"Bag","year":"2014","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hassan, S.T.S., Berchov\u00e1-B\u00edmov\u00e1, K., \u0160udomov\u00e1, M., Malan\u00edk, M., \u0160mejkal, K., and Rengasamy, K.R.R. (2018). In Vitro Study of Multi-Therapeutic Properties of Thymus bovei Benth. Essential Oil and Its Main Component for Promoting Their Use in Clinical Practice. J. Clin. Med., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm7090283"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1779","DOI":"10.1248\/bpb.28.1779","article-title":"Anti-herpes virus type 1 activity of oleanane-type triterpenoids","volume":"28","author":"Ikeda","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biol. Pharm. Bull."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1007\/s12013-011-9271-8","article-title":"Inhibition of intercellular adhesion in herpex simplex virus infection by glycyrrhizin","volume":"62","author":"Huang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cell Biochem. Biophys."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4386","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01492-10","article-title":"Hydrolyzable tannins (chebulagic acid and punicalagin) target viral glycoprotein-glycosaminoglycan interactions to inhibit herpes simplex virus 1 entry and cell-to-cell spread","volume":"85","author":"Lin","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kesharwani, A., Polachira, S.K., Nair, R., Agarwal, A., Mishra, N.N., and Gupta, S.K. (2017). Anti-HSV-2 activity of Terminalia chebula Retz extract and its constituents, chebulagic and chebulinic acids. BMC Complement. Altern. Med., 17.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12906-017-1620-8"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1590\/S0074-02762008000500005","article-title":"Anti-HSV-1 and anti-HIV-1 activity of gallic acid and pentyl gallate","volume":"103","author":"Kratz","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"903","DOI":"10.1248\/bpb.31.903","article-title":"Evaluation of anti-HSV-2 activity of gallic acid and pentyl gallate","volume":"31","author":"Kratz","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biol. Pharm. Bull."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fshw.2018.01.001","article-title":"Antiviral effect of polyphenol rich plant extracts on herpes simplex virus type 1","volume":"7","author":"Salib","year":"2018","journal-title":"Food Sci. Hum. Wellness"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2007.11.028","article-title":"Curcumin inhibits herpes simplex virus immediate-early gene expression by a mechanism independent of p300\/CBP histone acetyltransferase activity","volume":"373","author":"Kutluay","year":"2008","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"1693","article-title":"Verbascoside isolated from Lepechinia speciosa has inhibitory activity against HSV-1 and HSV-2 in vitro","volume":"4","author":"Martins","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Prod. Commun."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2011.07.009","article-title":"Antiherpetic activity of a sulfated polysaccharide from Agaricus brasiliensis mycelia","volume":"92","author":"Camelini","year":"2011","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2006-957889","article-title":"Antiviral effect of a polysaccharide from Sclerotium glucanicum towards herpes simplex virus type 1 infection","volume":"62","author":"Marchetti","year":"1996","journal-title":"Planta Med."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2015.04.004","article-title":"A spiroketal-enol ether derivative from Tanacetum vulgare selectively inhibits HSV-1 and HSV-2 glycoprotein accumulation in Vero cells","volume":"119","author":"Habtemariam","year":"2015","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4176","DOI":"10.3390\/md11114176","article-title":"Anti HSV-1 activity of halistanol sulfate and halistanol sulfate C isolated from Brazilian marine sponge Petromica citrina (Demospongiae)","volume":"11","author":"Quiroz","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mar. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1667","DOI":"10.1248\/bpb.b16-00401","article-title":"Anti-HSV Activity of Kuwanon X from Mulberry Leaves with Genes Expression Inhibitory and HSV-1 Induced NF-\u03baB Deactivated Properties","volume":"39","author":"Ma","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biol. Pharm. Bull."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2008.05.002","article-title":"Anti-herpes simplex virus (HSV-1) activity of oxyresveratrol derived from Thai medicinal plant: Mechanism of action and therapeutic efficacy on cutaneous HSV-1 infection in mice","volume":"80","author":"Chuanasa","year":"2008","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1080\/14786410410001704813","article-title":"Phenolics with antiviral activity from Millettia erythrocalyx and Artocarpus lakoocha","volume":"19","author":"Likhitwitayawuid","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nat. Prod. Res."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"791","DOI":"10.1211\/0022357056235","article-title":"Cytotoxic, antiviral (in-vitro and in-vivo), immunomodulatory activity and influence on mitotic divisions of three taxol derivatives: 10-deacetyl-baccatin III, methyl (N-benzoyl-(2\u2032R,3\u2032S)-3\u2032-phenylisoserinate) and N-benzoyl-(2\u2032R,3\u2032S)-3\u2032-phenylisoserine","volume":"57","author":"Krawczyk","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-3542(99)00037-6","article-title":"Antiviral effects of 28-deacetylsendanin on herpes simplex virus-1 replication","volume":"43","author":"Kim","year":"1999","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-3542(99)00036-4","article-title":"Antiviral properties of isoborneol, a potent inhibitor of herpes simplex virus type 1","volume":"43","author":"Armaka","year":"1999","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"955","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2006.03.226","article-title":"1-Cinnamoyl-3,11-dihydroxymeliacarpin is a natural bioactive compound with antiviral and nuclear factor-kappaB modulating properties","volume":"344","author":"Barquero","year":"2006","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2008.12.013","article-title":"A natural tetranortriterpenoid with immunomodulating properties as a potential anti-HSV agent","volume":"141","author":"Bueno","year":"2009","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1515\/znc-2003-3-413","article-title":"An Antiviral Meliacarpin from Leaves of Melia azedarach L.","volume":"58","author":"Meo","year":"2003","journal-title":"Z. F\u00fcr. Nat. C"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/37.4.759","article-title":"Characterization of antiviral activity of a sesquiterpene, triptofordin C-2","volume":"37","author":"Hayashi","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hassan, S.T.S., \u0160udomov\u00e1, M., Berchov\u00e1-B\u00edmov\u00e1, K., \u0160mejkal, K., and Echeverr\u00eda, J. (2019). Psoromic Acid, a Lichen-Derived Molecule, Inhibits the Replication of HSV-1 and HSV-2, and Inactivates HSV-1 DNA Polymerase: Shedding Light on Antiherpetic Properties. Molecules, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules24162912"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6257","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00012-13","article-title":"Griffithsin protects mice from genital herpes by preventing cell-to-cell spread","volume":"87","author":"Nixon","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1007\/s12602-012-9123-x","article-title":"Safety, formulation, and in vitro antiviral activity of the antimicrobial peptide subtilosin against herpes simplex virus type 1","volume":"5","author":"Torres","year":"2013","journal-title":"Probiotics Antimicrob. Proteins"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1253","DOI":"10.1111\/jam.12618","article-title":"Antiherpes simplex virus type 2 activity of the antimicrobial peptide subtilosin","volume":"117","author":"Quintana","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1287","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2006.03.047","article-title":"Trichosanthin suppresses the elevation of p38 MAPK, and Bcl-2 induced by HSV-1 infection in Vero cells","volume":"79","author":"Huang","year":"2006","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"670","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2010.10.080","article-title":"Trichosanthin affects HSV-1 replication in Hep-2 cells","volume":"402","author":"He","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/S0014-5793(01)02391-2","article-title":"Enhancement of the anti-herpetic effect of trichosanthin by acyclovir and interferon","volume":"496","author":"Zheng","year":"2001","journal-title":"FEBS Lett."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1462-5822.2004.00389.x","article-title":"Herpes simplex virus: Receptors and ligands for cell entry","volume":"6","author":"Spear","year":"2004","journal-title":"Cell Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1007\/s00430-010-0174-x","article-title":"Characterisation of the epitope for a herpes simplex virus glycoprotein B-specific monoclonal antibody with high protective capacity","volume":"200","author":"Schneider","year":"2011","journal-title":"Med. Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.1998.9243","article-title":"Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 Induction of Persistent NF-\u03baB Nuclear Translocation Increases the Efficiency of Virus Replication","volume":"247","author":"Patel","year":"1998","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7261","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.77.13.7261-7280.2003","article-title":"NF-\u03baB Is Required for Apoptosis Prevention during Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 Infection","volume":"77","author":"Goodkin","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1600","DOI":"10.1248\/bpb.26.1600","article-title":"In vitro anti-herpes simplex viruses and anti-adenoviruses activity of twelve traditionally used medicinal plants in Taiwan","volume":"26","author":"Chiang","year":"2003","journal-title":"Biol. Pharm. Bull."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vitali, D., Bagri, P., Wessels, J.M., Arora, M., Ganugula, R., Parikh, A., Mandur, T., Felker, A., Garg, S., and Kumar, M.N.V.R. (2020). Curcumin Can Decrease Tissue Inflammation and the Severity of HSV-2 Infection in the Female Reproductive Mucosa. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21010337"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2541","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.02250-12","article-title":"In VivoAnti-Herpes Simplex Virus Activity of a Sulfated Derivative of Agaricus brasiliensis Mycelial Polysaccharide","volume":"57","author":"Cardozo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1771","DOI":"10.1002\/ptr.2850","article-title":"Therapeutic effect of meliacine, an antiviral derived from Melia azedarach L.; in mice genital herpetic infection","volume":"23","author":"Petrera","year":"2009","journal-title":"Phytother. Res."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1002\/1096-9071(200008)61:4<474::AID-JMV10>3.0.CO;2-K","article-title":"Treatment with meliacine, a plant derived antiviral, prevents the development of herpetic stromal keratitis in mice","volume":"61","author":"Berra","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/13\/7\/1386\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:31:01Z","timestamp":1760164261000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/13\/7\/1386"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,16]]},"references-count":71,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7]]}},"alternative-id":["v13071386"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v13071386","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,16]]}}}