{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,13]],"date-time":"2026-06-13T18:10:53Z","timestamp":1781374253596,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":70,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,23]],"date-time":"2021-08-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1629676800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100015822","name":"Fondazione Roma","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["317A\/I"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["317A\/I"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100015822","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003407","name":"Ministero dell\u2019Istruzione, dell\u2019Universit\u00e0 e della Ricerca","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["FISR2020IP_03161"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FISR2020IP_03161"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003407","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has resulted in a global pandemic causing over 195 million infections and more than 4 million fatalities as of July 2021.To date, it has been demonstrated that a number of mutations in the spike glycoprotein (S protein) of SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern abrogate or reduce the neutralization potency of several therapeutic antibodies and vaccine-elicited antibodies. Therefore, the development of additional vaccine platforms with improved supply and logistic profile remains a pressing need. In this work, we have validated the applicability of a peptide-based strategy focused on a preventive as well as a therapeutic purpose. On the basis of the involvement of the dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP4), in addition to the angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor in the mechanism of virus entry, we analyzed peptides bearing DPP4 sequences by protein\u2013protein docking and assessed their ability to block pseudovirus infection in vitro. In parallel, we have selected and synthetized peptide sequences located within the highly conserved receptor-binding domain (RBD) of the S protein, and we found that RBD-based vaccines could better promote elicitation of high titers of neutralizing antibodies specific against the regions of interest, as confirmed by immunoinformatic methodologies and in vivo studies. These findings unveil a key antigenic site targeted by broadly neutralizing antibodies and pave the way to the design of pan-coronavirus vaccines.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v13081667","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,23]],"date-time":"2021-08-23T23:19:33Z","timestamp":1629760773000},"page":"1667","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Peptide Platform as a Powerful Tool in the Fight against COVID-19"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Michela","family":"Murdocca","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedicine and Prevention, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Via Montpellier 1, 00133 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gennaro","family":"Citro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedicine and Prevention, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Via Montpellier 1, 00133 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Isabella","family":"Romeo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Science, University \u2018Magna Graecia\u2019 of Catanzaro, Campus \u201cS. Venuta\u201d, Viale Europa, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy"},{"name":"Net4Science Academic Spin-Off, University \u2018Magna Graecia\u2019 of Catanzaro, Campus \u201cS. Venuta\u201d, Viale Europa, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0870-2376","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonio","family":"Lupia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Net4Science Academic Spin-Off, University \u2018Magna Graecia\u2019 of Catanzaro, Campus \u201cS. Venuta\u201d, Viale Europa, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shane","family":"Miersch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3E1, Canada"},{"name":"Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3E1, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bruno","family":"Amadio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SAFU-IRE, Regina Elena Cancer Institute, 00128 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alessia","family":"Bonomo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedicine and Prevention, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Via Montpellier 1, 00133 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Antonio","family":"Rossi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Translational Pharmacology, CNR, 00133 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sachdev S.","family":"Sidhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3E1, Canada"},{"name":"Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3E1, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pier Paolo","family":"Pandolfi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Renown Institute for Cancer, Nevada System of Higher Education, Reno, NV 89502, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stefano","family":"Alcaro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Science, University \u2018Magna Graecia\u2019 of Catanzaro, Campus \u201cS. Venuta\u201d, Viale Europa, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy"},{"name":"Net4Science Academic Spin-Off, University \u2018Magna Graecia\u2019 of Catanzaro, Campus \u201cS. Venuta\u201d, Viale Europa, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6227-4248","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Federica Carla","family":"Sangiuolo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedicine and Prevention, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Via Montpellier 1, 00133 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7781-602X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giuseppe","family":"Novelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedicine and Prevention, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Via Montpellier 1, 00133 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"IRCCS Neuromed, 86077 Pozzilli (IS), Italy"},{"name":"Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30183-5","article-title":"Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China","volume":"395","author":"Huang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1038\/s41423-020-0400-4","article-title":"Characterization of the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of 2019 novel coronavirus: Implication for development of RBD protein as a viral attachment inhibitor and vaccine","volume":"17","author":"Tai","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"779","DOI":"10.1007\/s00592-020-01539-z","article-title":"Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP4) inhibition in COVID-19","volume":"57","author":"Solerte","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Diabetol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Song, W., Gui, M., Wang, X., and Xiang, Y. (2018). Cryo-EM structure of the SARS coronavirus spike glycoprotein in complex with its host cell receptor ACE2. Plos Pathogen, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1007236"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1014","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abd0831","article-title":"Antibody cocktail to SARS-CoV-2 spike protein prevents rapid mutational escape seen with individual antibodies","volume":"369","author":"Baum","year":"2020","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30211-7","article-title":"Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: A descriptive study","volume":"395","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"905","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.04.004","article-title":"Inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 Infections in Engineered Human Tissues Using Clinical-Grade Soluble Human ACE2","volume":"181","author":"Monteil","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1038\/nrd.2015.37","article-title":"Coronaviruses-drug discovery and therapeutic options","volume":"15","author":"Zumla","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Drug Discov."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"812","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.06.043","article-title":"Tracking Changes in SARS-CoV-2 Spike: Evidence that D614G Increases Infectivity of the COVID-19 Virus","volume":"182","author":"Korber","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2384","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2021.03.036","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 variants B.1.351 and P.1 escape from neutralizing antibodies","volume":"184","author":"Hoffmann","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1666","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiab082","article-title":"S-Variant SARS-CoV-2 Lineage B1.1.7 is Associated with significantly higher viral load in Samples Tested by TaqPath Polymerase Chain Reaction","volume":"223","author":"Kidd","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2002106","DOI":"10.2807\/1560-7917.ES.2020.26.1.2002106","article-title":"Early transmissibility assessment of the N501Y mutant strains of SARS-CoV-2 in the United Kingdom, October to November 2020","volume":"26","author":"Leung","year":"2021","journal-title":"Euro Surveill."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm7008e2","article-title":"Detection of B.1.351 SARS-CoV-2 Variant Strain-Zambia, December 2020","volume":"70","author":"Mwenda","year":"2021","journal-title":"MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198345","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2021.198345","article-title":"Pervasive transmission of E484K and emergence of VUI-NP13L with evidence of SARS-CoV-2 co-infection events by two different lineages in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil","volume":"296","author":"Benites","year":"2021","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11727","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2003138117","article-title":"Cell entry mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2","volume":"117","author":"Shanga","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.25593","article-title":"Why are vaccines against many human viral diseases still unavailable; an historic perspective?","volume":"92","author":"Tannock","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2020.11.007","article-title":"Peptide and peptide-based inhibitors of SARS-CoV-2 entry","volume":"167","author":"Kirchhoff","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Delivery Rev."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170526","DOI":"10.1016\/j.peptides.2021.170526","article-title":"Antiviral peptides against Coronaviridae family: A review","volume":"139","author":"Heydari","year":"2021","journal-title":"Peptides"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1700","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bmc.2017.06.052","article-title":"Therapeutic peptides: Historical perspectives, current development trends, and future directions","volume":"26","author":"Lau","year":"2018","journal-title":"Bioorg. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5143","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.0c02857","article-title":"Computational Design of ACE2-Based Peptide Inhibitors of SARS-CoV-2","volume":"14","author":"Han","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5498","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2006.04.054","article-title":"Identification and characterization of novel neutralizing epitopes in the receptor-binding domain of SARS-CoV spike protein: Revealing the critical antigenic determinants in inactivated SARS-CoV vaccine","volume":"24","author":"He","year":"2006","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20836","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M400759200","article-title":"Structural characterization of the SARS-coronavirus spike S fusion protein core","volume":"279","author":"Tripet","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.2000.0757","article-title":"Coronavirus spike proteins in viral entry and pathogenesis","volume":"279","author":"Gallagher","year":"2001","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1605","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI18819","article-title":"SARS coronavirus: A new challenge for prevention and therapy","volume":"111","author":"Holmes","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Clin. Invest."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110559","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2020.110559","article-title":"Targeting SARS-CoV2 Spike Protein Receptor Binding Domain by Therapeutic Antibodies","volume":"130","author":"Hussain","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"986","DOI":"10.1038\/cr.2013.92","article-title":"Structure of MERS-CoV spike receptor-binding domain complexed with human receptor DPP4","volume":"23","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cell Res."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1260","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abb2507","article-title":"Cryo-em structure of the 2019-ncov spike in the prefusion conformation","volume":"367","author":"Wrapp","year":"2020","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7128","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jpcb.0c04553","article-title":"Developing a fully glycosylated full-length sars-cov-2 spike protein model in a viral membrane","volume":"124","author":"Woo","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10096","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1808117","article-title":"A modified TIP3P water potential for simulation with Ewald summation","volume":"121","author":"Price","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1038\/nmeth.4067","article-title":"CHARMM36m: An improved force field for folded and intrinsically disordered proteins","volume":"14","author":"Huang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Methods"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"867","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2020.11.004","article-title":"Cryo-EM Structures of SARS-CoV-2 Spike without and with ACE2 Reveal a pH-Dependent Switch to Mediate Endosomal Positioning of Receptor-Binding Domains","volume":"28","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"(2021, August 22). RCSB Protein Data Bank. Available online: https:\/\/www.rcsb.org\/structure\/2G63."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.softx.2015.06.001","article-title":"GROMACS: High performance molecular simulations through multi-levelparallelism from laptops to supercomputers","volume":"1\u20132","author":"Abraham","year":"2015","journal-title":"SoftwareX"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1400","DOI":"10.1002\/jcc.21726","article-title":"Combination of the CHARMM27 force field with united-atom lipid force fields","volume":"32","author":"Sapay","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Comput. Chem."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1521-3773(19990115)38:1\/2<236::AID-ANIE236>3.0.CO;2-M","article-title":"Peptide folding: When simulation meets experiment","volume":"38","author":"Daura","year":"1999","journal-title":"Angew. Chem. Int. Ed."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"720","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmb.2015.09.014","article-title":"The HADDOCK2.2 Web Server: User-Friendly Integrative Modeling of Biomolecular Complexes","volume":"428","author":"Rodrigues","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e074554","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.07454","article-title":"Contacts-based prediction of binding affinity in protein\u2013protein complexes","volume":"4","author":"Vangone","year":"2015","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3676","DOI":"10.1093\/bioinformatics\/btw514","article-title":"PRODIGY: A web-server for predicting the binding affinity in protein-protein complexes","volume":"32","author":"Xue","year":"2016","journal-title":"Bioinformatics"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"(2021, May 03). Schr\u00f6dinger Release: Maestro, version 11.5.011, Schr\u00f6dinger, LLC, NY 2018\u20131. Available online: https:\/\/www.schrodinger.com\/products\/maestro."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1186\/1745-7580-4-2","article-title":"Quantitative peptide binding motifs for 19 human and mouse MHC class I molecules derived using positional scanning combinatorial peptide libraries","volume":"4","author":"Sidney","year":"2008","journal-title":"Immunome Res."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2105-8-424","article-title":"Large Scale validation of methods for cytotoxic T-Lymphocyte epitope prediction","volume":"8","author":"Larsen","year":"2007","journal-title":"BMC Bioinf."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1186\/s13073-015-0245-0","article-title":"Immunoinformatics and epitope prediction in the age of genomic medicine","volume":"7","author":"Backert","year":"2015","journal-title":"Genome Med."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shi, J., Zhang, J., Li, S., Sun, J., Teng, Y., Wu, M., Li, J., Li, Y., Hu, N., and Wang, H. (2015). Epitope-Based Vaccine Target Screening against Highly Pathogenic MERS-CoV: An In Silico Approach Applied to Emerging Infectious Diseases. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0144475"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1722","DOI":"10.1021\/acscentsci.0c01056","article-title":"Beyond Shielding: The Roles of Glycans in the SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein","volume":"6","author":"Casalino","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Cent. Sci."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"1722","article-title":"Investigation of ACE2 N-terminal fragments binding to SARS-CoV-2 Spike RBD","volume":"6","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Cent. Sci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"834","DOI":"10.1038\/328834a0","article-title":"The accessible surface area and stability of oligomeric proteins","volume":"328","author":"Miller","year":"1987","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"705","DOI":"10.1038\/256705a0","article-title":"Principles of protein-protein recognition","volume":"256","author":"Chothia","year":"1975","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/0079-6107(94)00008-W","article-title":"Protein-protein interactions: A review of protein dimer structures","volume":"63","author":"Jones","year":"1995","journal-title":"Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.6026\/97320630013164","article-title":"Protein-protein interfaces are vdW dominant with selective H-bonds and (or) electrostatics towards broad functional specificity","volume":"13","author":"Nilofer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Bioinformation"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2216","DOI":"10.1021\/pr9009854","article-title":"Are scoring functions in protein-protein docking ready to predict interactomes? Clues from a novel binding affinity benchmark","volume":"9","author":"Kastritis","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Proteome Res."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, A.C.L., Harris, J.L., Khanna, K.K., and Hong, J.H. (2019). A Comprehensive Review on Current Advances in Peptide Drug Development and Design. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20102383"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/0959-440X(95)80015-S","article-title":"Protein-peptide interactions","volume":"5","author":"Stanfield","year":"1995","journal-title":"Curr Opin Struct Biol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1051\/vetres\/2009046","article-title":"Development of an experimental inactivated PRRSV vaccine that induces virus-neutralizing antibodies","volume":"40","author":"Vanhee","year":"2009","journal-title":"Vet. Res"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"W431","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkv495","article-title":"GalaxyPepDock: A protein-peptide docking tool based on interaction similarity and energy optimization","volume":"43","author":"Lee","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copbio.2006.08.002","article-title":"Peptides mediating interaction networks: New leads at last","volume":"17","author":"Neduva","year":"2006","journal-title":"Curr Opin Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"De Vries, S.J., Rey, J., Schindler, C.E.M., Zacharias, M., and Tuffery, P. The pepATTRACT web server for blind, large-scale peptide\u2013protein docking. Nucl. Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1016\/j.it.2018.04.008","article-title":"Understanding and manipulating viral immunity: Antibody immunodominance enters center stage","volume":"39","author":"Angeletti","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trends in immunology"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.3695","article-title":"Quantifying the shifting landscape of B cell immunodominance","volume":"18","author":"Dale","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.3680","article-title":"Defining B cell immunodominance to viruses","volume":"18","author":"Angeletti","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2019.04.012","article-title":"Slow Delivery Immunization Enhances HIV Neutralizing Antibody and Germinal Center Responses via Modulation of Immunodominance","volume":"177","author":"Cirelli","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jgg.2020.01.003","article-title":"Identification of potential cross-protective epitope between a new type of coronavirus (2019-nCoV) and severe acute respiratory syndrome virus","volume":"47","author":"Qiu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Genet. Genom."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102393","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nano.2021.102393","article-title":"Exposure-time-dependent subcellular staging of gold nanoparticles deposition and vesicle destruction in mice livers","volume":"34","author":"Wu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nanom. Nanotechnol. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"102372","article-title":"Synthesis and immunogenicity assessment of a gold nanoparticle conjugate for the delivery of a peptide from SARS-CoV-2","volume":"31","author":"Palestinoa","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nanom. Nanotechnol. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1038\/nature12005","article-title":"Dipeptidyl peptidase 4 is a functional receptor for the emerging human coronavirus-EMC","volume":"495","author":"Raj","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1007\/s11427-020-1637-5","article-title":"Evolution of the novel coronavirus from the ongoing Wuhan outbreak and modeling of its spike protein for risk of human transmission","volume":"63","author":"Xu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. China Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2020.1739565","article-title":"Emerging WuHan (COVID-19) coronavirus: Glycan shield and structure prediction of spike glycoprotein and its interaction with human CD26","volume":"9","author":"Vankadari","year":"2020","journal-title":"Emerg Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2020.1713705","article-title":"Polymorphisms in dipeptidyl peptidase 4 reduce host cell entry of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus","volume":"9","author":"Schroeder","year":"2020","journal-title":"Emerg. Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-6352-2_2","article-title":"Antibody Production with Synthetic Peptides","volume":"1474","author":"Lee","year":"2016","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miersch, S., Ustav, M., Li, Z., Case, J., Ganaie, S., Matusali, G., Colavita, F., Lapa, D., and Capobianchi, M.R. (2020). Synthetic antibodies neutralize SARS-CoV-2 infection of mammalian cells. BioRxiv, Preprint.","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.06.05.137349"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Longlong Si, L., Bai, H., Rodas, M., Cao, W., Oh, C.Y., Jiang, A., and Moller, R. (2021). A human-airway-on-a-chip for the rapid identification of candidate antiviral therapeutics and prophylactics. Nat. Biomed. Eng.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41551-021-00718-9"}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/13\/8\/1667\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:49:45Z","timestamp":1760165385000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/13\/8\/1667"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,23]]},"references-count":70,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,8]]}},"alternative-id":["v13081667"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v13081667","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,23]]}}}