{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,24]],"date-time":"2026-07-24T06:37:01Z","timestamp":1784875021122,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,22]],"date-time":"2021-09-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1632268800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Nearly 40 years have passed since the initial cases of infection with the human mmunodeficiency virus (HIV) were identified as a new disease entity and the cause of acquired immunodeficiency disease (AIDS). This virus, unlike any other, is capable of causing severe suppression of our adaptive immune defense mechanisms by directly infecting and destroying helper T cells leading to increased susceptibility to a wide variety of microbial pathogens, especially those considered to be intracellular or opportunistic. After T cells are infected, HIV reproduces itself via a somewhat unique mechanism involving various metabolic steps, which includes the use of a reverse transcriptase enzyme that enables the viral RNA to produce copies of its complementary DNA. Subsequent physiologic steps lead to the production of new virus progeny and the eventual death of the invaded T cell. Fortunately, both serologic and molecular tests (such as PCR) can be used to confirm the diagnosis of an HIV infection. In the wake of the current COVID-19 pandemic, it appears that people living with HIV\/AIDS are equally or slightly more susceptible to the etiologic agent, SARS-CoV-2, than the general population having intact immune systems, but they may have more serious outcomes. Limited clinical trials have also shown that the currently available COVID-19 vaccines are both safe and effective in affording protection to HIV\/AIDS patients. In this review, we further explore the unique dynamic of HIV\/AIDS in the context of the worldwide COVID-19 pandemic and the implementation of vaccines as a protective measure against COVID-19, as well as what immune parameters and safeguards should be monitored in this immunocompromised group following vaccination.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v13101890","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,22]],"date-time":"2021-09-22T22:50:48Z","timestamp":1632351048000},"page":"1890","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["COVID-19 Vaccines for HIV-Infected Patients"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9862-6244","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria M.","family":"Plummer","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Specialties, Division of Pathology, New York Institute of Technology, NYIT College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, NY 11568, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Charles S.","family":"Pavia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, New York Institute of Technology, NYIT College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, NY 11568, USA"},{"name":"Division of Infectious Diseases, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY 10595, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1982). Update on acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)\u2014United States. MMWR. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep., 31, 507\u2013514."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2021, April 21). Ways HIV Can Be Transmitted, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/hiv\/basics\/hiv-transmission\/ways-people-get-hiv.html."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2021, April 23). HIV: Basic Statistics, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/hiv\/basics\/statistics.html."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"527","article-title":"UK mother-to-child HIV transmission rates continue to decline: 2012\u20132014","volume":"64","author":"Peters","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1300","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6647e1","article-title":"Human immunodeficiency virus testing and diagnosis delays\u2014United States","volume":"66","author":"Dailey","year":"2017","journal-title":"MMWR. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"HIV.Gov (2021, June 02). What is Ending the HIV Epidemic in the U.S.?, Available online: https:\/\/www.hiv.gov\/federal-response\/ending-the-hiv-epidemic\/overview."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2131","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMcp1915826","article-title":"HIV infection\u2014screening, diagnosis, and treatment","volume":"384","author":"Saag","year":"2021","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Murray, P.R., Rosenthal, K.S., and Pfaller, M.A. (2020). Medical Microbiology, Elsevier. [9th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Kumar, V., Abbas, A., and Aster, J. (2020). Robbins and Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease, Elsevier. [10th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.med.60.041807.123549","article-title":"Emerging concepts in the immunopathogenesis of AIDS","volume":"60","author":"Douek","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann. Rev. Med."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1943","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra1011874","article-title":"Acute HIV-1 infection","volume":"364","author":"Cohen","year":"2011","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-pathol-011110-130254","article-title":"Pathogenic mechanisms of HIV disease","volume":"6","author":"Moir","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ann. Rev. Pathol. Mech. Dis."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1097\/MNH.0b013e328345359a","article-title":"HIV-associated nephropathy: Pathogenesis","volume":"20","author":"Medapalli","year":"2011","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Nephrol. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semnephrol.2008.08.005","article-title":"HIV-associated nephropathy: Clinical presentation, pathology, and epidemiology in the era of antiretroviral therapy","volume":"28","author":"Wyatt","year":"2008","journal-title":"Semin. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"50","article-title":"The pathogenesis and treatment of COVID-19: A system review","volume":"34","author":"Ji","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biomed. Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1186\/s12575-020-00128-2","article-title":"A comprehensive review of COVID-19 characteristics","volume":"22","author":"Esakandari","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biol. Proced. Online"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"782","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.12839","article-title":"Pathophysiology, transmission, diagnosis, and treatment of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): A Review","volume":"324","author":"Wiersinga","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-021-00527-1","article-title":"COVID-19 in early 2021: Current status and looking forward","volume":"6","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"e9438","article-title":"A review of postmortem findings in patients with COVID-19","volume":"12","author":"Eketunde","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1097\/PAS.0000000000001650","article-title":"Postmortem Findings Associated With SARS-CoV- 2: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis","volume":"45","author":"Satturwar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Surg. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diagmicrobio.2020.115148","article-title":"COVID-19: Is there a role for Western blots and skin testing for determining immunity and development of a vaccine?","volume":"98","author":"Pavia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2020, November 03). Using Antibody Tests for COVID-19, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/coronavirus\/2019-ncov\/lab\/resources\/antibody-tests.html."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2020, September 11). Antigen Detection in the Diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 Infection Using Rapid Immunoassays. Interim Guidance. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/publications\/i\/item\/antigen-detection-in-the-diagnosis-of-sars-cov-2infection-using-rapid-immunoassays."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106275","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2020.106275","article-title":"Passive immunization and its rebirth in the era of the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"57","author":"Pavia","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Pavia, C.S., and Plummer, M.M. (2021). The evolution of rapid antigen detection systems and their application for COVID-19 and other serious respiratory infectious diseases. J. Microbiol. Immunol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"United States Federal Government (2020, May 15). Operation Warp Speed, Available online: https:\/\/www.defense.gov\/Explore\/Spotlight\/Coronavirus\/Operation-Warp-Speed\/."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1097\/COH.0000000000000659","article-title":"The interplay between HIV and COVID-10: Summary of the data and responses to date","volume":"16","author":"Brown","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. HIV AIDS"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1097\/COH.0000000000000654","article-title":"The first 6 months of HIV-SARS-CoV-2 coinfection: Outcomes for 6947 individuals","volume":"16","author":"Johnston","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. HIV AIDS"},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2020, October 20). COVID-19 and HIV, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/hiv\/basics\/covid-19.html."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"British HIV Association (2021, January 11). SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine Advice for Adults Living with HIV: British HIV Association (BHIVA) & Terrence Higgins Trust (THT) Guidance. Available online: https:\/\/www.bhiva.org\/SARS-CoV-2-vaccine-advice-for-adults-living-with-HIV-update."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2021, July 14). Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19): COVID-19 Vaccines and People Living with HIV. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/q-a-detail\/coronavirus-disease-(covid-19)-covid-19-vaccines-and-people-living-with-hiv."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2083","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1310566","article-title":"Efficacy trial of a DNA\/rAd5 HIV-1 preventive vaccine","volume":"369","author":"Hammer","year":"2013","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E68","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)32156-5","article-title":"Use of adenovirus type-5 vectored vaccines: A cautionary tale","volume":"396","author":"Buchbinder","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1881","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(08)61591-3","article-title":"Efficacy assessment of a cell-mediated immunity HIV-1 vaccine (the Step Study): A double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled, test-of-concept trial","volume":"372","author":"Buchbinder","year":"2008","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(11)70098-6","article-title":"Safety and efficacy of the HVTN 503\/Phambili study of a clade-B-based HIV-1 vaccine in South Africa: A double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled test-of-concept phase 2b study","volume":"11","author":"Gray","year":"2011","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI60202","article-title":"Human adenovirus-specific T cells modulate HIV-specific T cell responses to an Ad5-vectored HIV-1 vaccine","volume":"122","author":"Frahm","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2717","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20081786","article-title":"Activation of a dendritic cell-T cell axis by Ad5 immune complexes creates an improved environment for replication of HIV in T cells","volume":"205","author":"Perreau","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108730","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clim.2021.108730","article-title":"A novel application of delayed-type hypersensitivity reaction to measure cellular immune response in SARS-CoV-2 exposed individuals","volume":"226","author":"Barrios","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Nature (2021, June 22). Delta Coronavirus Variant: Scientists Brace for Impact. Available online: https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/d41586-021-01696-3."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"n1445","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.n1445","article-title":"Covid-19: Delta variant is now UK\u2032s most dominant strain and spreading through schools","volume":"373","author":"Torjesen","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"CNN (2021, July 01). J. & J. Covid-19 Vaccine Lasts at Least 8 Months, Protects against Delta Variant, Studies Find. Available online: https:\/\/www.cnn.com\/2021\/07\/01\/health\/johnson-vaccine-delta-variant\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-020-0402-6","article-title":"T cell response in patients with COVID-19","volume":"20","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/13\/10\/1890\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:03:08Z","timestamp":1760166188000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/13\/10\/1890"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,22]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,10]]}},"alternative-id":["v13101890"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v13101890","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,22]]}}}