{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]],"date-time":"2026-10-06T12:37:53Z","timestamp":1791290273482,"version":"4.3.0"},"reference-count":284,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,14]],"date-time":"2021-10-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1634169600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001659","name":"Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["398066876\/GRK 2485\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["398066876\/GRK 2485\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001659","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001659","name":"Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["EXC 2155 \"RESIST\" - Project ID 39087428"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EXC 2155 \"RESIST\" - Project ID 39087428"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001659","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001656","name":"Helmholtz Association","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["ZT-0027"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZT-0027"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001656","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Viral encephalitis is a rare but serious syndrome. In addition to DNA-encoded herpes viruses, such as herpes simplex virus and varicella zoster virus, RNA-encoded viruses from the families of Flaviviridae, Rhabdoviridae and Paramyxoviridae are important neurotropic viruses. Whereas in the periphery, the role of Toll-like receptors (TLR) during immune stimulation is well understood, TLR functions within the CNS are less clear. On one hand, TLRs can affect the physiology of neurons during neuronal progenitor cell differentiation and neurite outgrowth, whereas under conditions of infection, the complex interplay between TLR stimulated neurons, astrocytes and microglia is just on the verge of being understood. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge about which TLRs are expressed by cell subsets of the CNS. Furthermore, we specifically highlight functional implications of TLR stimulation in neurons, astrocytes and microglia. After briefly illuminating some examples of viral evasion strategies from TLR signaling, we report on the current knowledge of primary immunodeficiencies in TLR signaling and their consequences for viral encephalitis. Finally, we provide an outlook with examples of TLR agonist mediated intervention strategies and potentiation of vaccine responses against neurotropic virus infections.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v13102065","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,14]],"date-time":"2021-10-14T23:02:16Z","timestamp":1634252536000},"page":"2065","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["Toll-like Receptors in Viral Encephalitis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Olivia Luise","family":"Gern","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Experimental Infection Research, TWINCORE, Centre for Experimental and Clinical Infection Research, a Joint Venture between the Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research and the Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany"},{"name":"Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, 30559 Hannover, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Felix","family":"Mulenge","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Experimental Infection Research, TWINCORE, Centre for Experimental and Clinical Infection Research, a Joint Venture between the Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research and the Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andreas","family":"Pavlou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Experimental Infection Research, TWINCORE, Centre for Experimental and Clinical Infection Research, a Joint Venture between the Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research and the Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany"},{"name":"Clinical Neuroimmunology and Neurochemistry, Department of Neurology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany"},{"name":"Center for Systems Neuroscience, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30559 Hannover, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6736-6355","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luca","family":"Ghita","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Experimental Infection Research, TWINCORE, Centre for Experimental and Clinical Infection Research, a Joint Venture between the Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research and the Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany"},{"name":"Division of Infectious Diseases and Geographic Medicine, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Imke","family":"Steffen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry and Research Center for Emerging Infections and Zoonoses (RIZ), University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, 30559 Hannover, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2504-5398","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Martin","family":"Stangel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Translational Medicine, Novartis Institute for Biomedical Research (NIBR), 4056 Basel, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0503-9564","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ulrich","family":"Kalinke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Experimental Infection Research, TWINCORE, Centre for Experimental and Clinical Infection Research, a Joint Venture between the Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research and the Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany"},{"name":"Cluster of Excellence\u2014Resolving Infection Susceptibility (RESIST, EXC 2155), Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Stra\u00dfe 1, 30625 Hannover, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kennedy, P.G.E., Quan, P.-L., and Lipkin, W.I. 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