{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T02:32:26Z","timestamp":1760236346222,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":90,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,16]],"date-time":"2021-11-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1637020800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1R01 NS107246-01 and RO1 NS061994"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1R01 NS107246-01 and RO1 NS061994"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Prion diseases, or transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs), are a class of fatal neurodegenerative diseases caused by the entry and spread of infectious prion proteins (PrPSc) in the central nervous system (CNS). These diseases are endemic to certain mammalian animal species that use their sense of smell for a variety of purposes and therefore expose their nasal cavity (NC) to PrPSc in the environment. Prion diseases that affect humans are either inherited due to a mutation of the gene that encodes the prion protein, acquired by exposure to contaminated tissues or medical devices, or develop without a known cause (referred to as sporadic). The purpose of this review is to identify components of the NC that are involved in prion transport and to summarize the evidence that the NC serves as a route of entry (centripetal spread) and\/or a source of shedding (centrifugal spread) of PrPSc, and thus plays a role in the pathogenesis of the TSEs.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v13112287","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,17]],"date-time":"2021-11-17T21:32:07Z","timestamp":1637184727000},"page":"2287","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["The Role of the Nasal Cavity in the Pathogenesis of Prion Diseases"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Anthony E.","family":"Kincaid","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of Pharmacy Sciences and Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Creighton University, 2500 California Plaza, Omaha, NE 68178, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Buettner, A. (2017). Human and animal olfactory capabilities compared. Springer Handbook of Odor, Springer. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-26932-0"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1016\/0140-6736(91)90873-N","article-title":"Survival of scrapie virus after 3 year\u2019s internment","volume":"337","author":"Brown","year":"1991","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3737","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.82011-0","article-title":"Infectious agent of sheep scrapie may persist in the environment for at least 16 years","volume":"87","author":"Georgsson","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Seidel, B., Thomzig, A., Buschmann, A., Groschup, M.H., Peters, R., Beekes, M., and Terytze, K. (2007). Scrapie agent (Strain 263K) can transmit disease via the oral route after persistence in soil over years. PLoS ONE, 2.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0000435"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1132661","article-title":"Infectious prions in the saliva and blood of deer with chronic wasting disease","volume":"314","author":"Mathiason","year":"2006","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haley, N.J., Seelig, D.M., Zabel, M.D., Telling, G.C., and Hoover, E.A. (2009). Detection of CWD prions in urine and saliva of deer by transgenic mouse bioassay. PLoS ONE, 4.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0004848"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1086\/588193","article-title":"Transmission and detection of prions in feces","volume":"198","author":"Safar","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Henderson, D.M., Tennant, J.M., Haley, N.J., Denkers, N.D., Mathiason, C.K., and Hoover, E.A. (2017). Detection of chronic wasting disease prion seeding activity in deer and elk feces by real-time quaking-induced conversion. J. Gen. Virol.","DOI":"10.1099\/jgv.0.000844"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tennant, J.M., Li, M., Henderson, D.M., Tyer, M.L., Denkers, N.D., Haley, N.J., Mathiason, C.K., and Hoover, E.A. (2020). Shedding and stability of CWD prion seeding activity in cervid feces. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0227094"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1003","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1006.040010","article-title":"Environmental sources of prion transmission in mule deer","volume":"10","author":"Miller","year":"2004","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1038\/425035a","article-title":"Horizontal prion transmission in mule deer","volume":"425","author":"Miller","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1117","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1122864","article-title":"Prions in skeletal muscle of deer with chronic wasting disease","volume":"311","author":"Angers","year":"2006","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00501","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00501-17","article-title":"Infectious prions in the pregnancy microenvironment of chronic wasting disease-infected of Reeves\u2019 muntjac deer","volume":"91","author":"Nalls","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Johnson, C.J., Phillips, K.E., Schramm, P.T., McKenzie, D., Aiken, J.M., and Pedersen, J.A. (2006). Prions adhere to soil minerals and remain infectious. PLoS Pathog., 2.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.0020032"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Johnson, C.J., Pedersen, J.A., Chappell, R.J., McKenzie, D., and Aiken, J.M. (2007). Oral transmissibility of prion disease is enhanced by binding to soil particles. PLoS Pathog., 3.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.0030093"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.4161\/pri.2.4.7951","article-title":"Prions in the environment","volume":"2","author":"Saunders","year":"2008","journal-title":"Prion"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2015.04.036","article-title":"Grass plants bind, retain, uptake and transport infectious prions","volume":"11","author":"Pritzkow","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaam7263","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aam7263","article-title":"Poor human olfaction is a 19th-century myth","volume":"356","author":"McGann","year":"2017","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.4161\/pri.5.3.16851","article-title":"Aerosols, an underestimated vehicle for transmission of prion diseases?","volume":"5","author":"Stitz","year":"2011","journal-title":"Prion"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1186\/s13567-015-0176-1","article-title":"Circulation of prions within dust on a scrapie affected farm","volume":"46","author":"Gough","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbd.2016.12.013","article-title":"The olfactory bulb as the entry site for prion-like propagation in neurodegenerative diseases","volume":"109","author":"Rey","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Dis."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.21327","article-title":"The olfactory vector hypothesis of neurodegenerative disease: Is it viable?","volume":"63","author":"Doty","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3657","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01966-08","article-title":"Olfactory system involvement in natural scrapie disease","volume":"83","author":"Corona","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1354\/vp.46-1-59","article-title":"Detection of pathologic prion protein in the olfactory bulb of natural and experimental bovine spongiform encephalopathy affected cattle in Great Britain","volume":"46","author":"Lee","year":"2009","journal-title":"Vet. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp.71.3.412","article-title":"New variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease presenting with loss of taste and smell","volume":"71","author":"Reuber","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psych."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Farbman, A.I. (1992). Cell Biology of Olfaction, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1080\/01926230600713475","article-title":"The nose revisited: A brief review of the comparative structure, function, and toxicologic pathology of the nasal epithelium","volume":"34","author":"Harkema","year":"2006","journal-title":"Tox. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-4695(199605)30:1<67::AID-NEU7>3.0.CO;2-E","article-title":"Neurogenesis and cell death in olfactory epithelium","volume":"30","author":"Calof","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2014.00182","article-title":"A lifetime of neurogenesis in the olfactory system","volume":"8","author":"Brann","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2913","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.201.21.2913","article-title":"Structure and function of the vomeronasal organ","volume":"201","author":"Doving","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Exp. Biol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"933","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.57.6.933","article-title":"Localizations of the virus of poliomyelitis in the central nervous system during the preparalytic period after intranasal instillation","volume":"57","author":"Faber","year":"1933","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6822(91)90145-2","article-title":"Spread of the CVS strain of rabies virus and of the avirulent mutant Av01 along the olfactory pathways of the mouse after intranasal inoculation","volume":"183","author":"Lafay","year":"1991","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"751","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1998.tb10655.x","article-title":"Viral replication in olfactory receptor neurons and entry into the olfactory bulb and brain","volume":"855","author":"Reiss","year":"1998","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"129","article-title":"Olfactory transmission of neurotropic viruses","volume":"11","author":"Mori","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Neur. Vir."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"277","article-title":"The olfactory nerve: A shortcut for influenza and other viral diseases into the central nervous system","volume":"235","author":"Verdijk","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2063","DOI":"10.1099\/0022-1317-76-8-2063","article-title":"Dissemination of wild-type and gC-, gE- and gI-deleted mutants of Aujeszky\u2019s disease virus in the maxillary nerve and trigeminal ganglion of pigs after intranasal inoculation","volume":"76","author":"Kritas","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"616","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.1994.1576","article-title":"Propagation of pseudorabies virus in the nervous system of the mouse after intranasal inoculation","volume":"204","author":"Babic","year":"1994","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1354\/vp.41-2-101","article-title":"The vagus nerve is one route of transneuronal invasion for intranasally inoculated influenza A virus in mice","volume":"41","author":"Matsuda","year":"2004","journal-title":"Vet. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1002\/cne.21698","article-title":"Expression and localization of the prion protein PrPC in the olfactory system of the mouse","volume":"508","author":"Firestein","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Comp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"791","DOI":"10.1093\/chemse\/bjr054","article-title":"The cellular prion protein is expressed by olfactory sensory neurons of adult mice but does not affect the early events of the olfactory transduction pathway","volume":"36","author":"Dibattista","year":"2011","journal-title":"Chem. Senses"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13148","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.93.23.13148","article-title":"Normal host prion protein (PrPC) is required for scrapie spread within the central nervous system","volume":"93","author":"Brandner","year":"1996","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"415","article-title":"Nasal associated lymphoid tissue","volume":"Volume 1","author":"Mestecky","year":"2005","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunity"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-1759(96)00243-8","article-title":"Isolation and characterization of mouse nasal-associated lymphoid tissue","volume":"202","author":"Asanuma","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Immun. Meth."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4288","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.65.10.4288-4298.1997","article-title":"Targeted delivery of antigen to hamster nasal lymphoid tissue with M-cell directed lectins","volume":"65","author":"Giannasca","year":"1997","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00229081","article-title":"Nasal lymphoid tissue in the rat","volume":"255","author":"Spit","year":"1989","journal-title":"Cell Tissue Res."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1053\/jcpa.2001.0506","article-title":"Characterization of ovine nasal-associated lymphoid tissue and identification of M cells in the overlying follicle-associated epithelium","volume":"125","author":"Stanley","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Comp. Path."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymeth.2005.09.010","article-title":"The ovine nasal mucosa: An alternative tissue site for mucosal immunization","volume":"38","author":"Sedgmen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Methods"},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Rebelatto, M.C. (2000). Nasal Associated Lymphoid Tissue and Intranasal Immunization in Cattle. [Ph.D. Thesis, Purdue University]."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"249","article-title":"Lymphoid tissue in the nasal mucosa of primates, with particular reference to intraepithelial lymphocytes","volume":"117","author":"Loo","year":"1974","journal-title":"J. Anat."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2249.2003.02311.x","article-title":"Nasal-associated lymphoid tissue (NALT): Frequency and localization in young children","volume":"134","author":"Debertin","year":"2003","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2532","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.171.5.2532","article-title":"Membranous cells in nasal-associated lymphoid tissue: A portal of entry for the respiratory mucosal pathogen group A streptococcus","volume":"171","author":"Park","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1093\/intimm\/dxx064","article-title":"NALT M cells are important for immune induction for the common mucosal immune system","volume":"29","author":"Date","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Clouse, M.D., Shikiya, R.A., Bartz, J.C., and Kincaid, A.E. (2015). Nasal associated lymphoid tissue of the Syrian golden hamster expresses high levels of PrPC. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0117935"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1499","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.01499","article-title":"M cells: Intelligent engineering of mucosal immune surveillance","volume":"10","author":"Dillon","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"660","DOI":"10.3109\/00016489309135881","article-title":"Immunohistology of nasopharyngeal (Waldeyer\u2019s ring equivalent) lymphoid tissue in the rat","volume":"113","author":"Koornstra","year":"1993","journal-title":"Acta Otolaryngol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4482","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02649-06","article-title":"The nasal cavity is a route for prion infection in hamsters","volume":"81","author":"Kincaid","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1007\/s00401-008-0474-z","article-title":"Neuroinvasion of the 263K scrapie strain after intranasal administration occurs through olfactory-unrelated pathways","volume":"117","author":"Sbriccoli","year":"2009","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6435","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00018-09","article-title":"Role of the lymphoreticular system in prion neuroinvasion from the oral and nasal mucosa","volume":"83","author":"Bessen","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haybaeck, J., Heikenwalder, M., Klevenz, B., Schwarz, P., Margalith, I., Bridel, C., Mertz, K., Zirdum, E., Petsch, B., and Fuchs, T.J. (2011). Aerosols transmit prions to immunocompetent and immunodeficient mice. PLoS Pathog., 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1001257"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1651","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.017335-0","article-title":"Aerosol and nasal transmission of chronic wasting disease in cervidized mice","volume":"91","author":"Denkers","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1354\/vp.45-1-7","article-title":"Experimental transmission of US scrapie agent by nasal, peritoneal, and conjunctival routes to genetically susceptible sheep","volume":"45","author":"Hamir","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vet. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1890","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02852-12","article-title":"Aerosol transmission of chronic wasting disease in white-tailed deer","volume":"87","author":"Denkers","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nichols, T.A., Spraker, T.R., Rigg, T.D., Meyerett-Reid, C., Hoover, C., Michel, B., Bian, J., Hoover, E., Gidlewski, T., and Balachandran, A. (2013). Intranasal inoculation of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) with lyophilized chronic wasting disease prion particulate complexed to montmorillonite clay. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0062455"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shikiya, R.A., Langenfeld, K.A., Eckland, T.E., Trinh, J., Holec, S.M., Mathiason, C.K., Kincaid, A.E., and Bartz, J.C. (2017). PrPSc formation and clearance as determinants of prion tropism. PLoS Pathog., 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1006298"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1002\/path.1962","article-title":"Transportation of prion protein across the intestinal mucosa of scrapie-susceptible and scrapie-resistant sheep","volume":"209","author":"Jeffrey","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3116","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.025049-0","article-title":"Digestion and transportation of bovine spongiform encephalopathy-derived prion protein in the sheep intestine","volume":"91","author":"Dagleish","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"Finger, T.E., Silver, W.L., and Restrepo, D. (2000). Chemesthesis: The common chemical sense. The Neurobiology of Taste and Smell, John Wiley and Sons. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1002\/cne.902940212","article-title":"Ultrastructure of substance-P and CGRP-immunoreactive nerve fibers in the nasal epithelium of rodents","volume":"294","author":"Finger","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Comp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8981","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1531172100","article-title":"Solitary chemoreceptor cells in the nasal cavity serve as sentinels of respiration","volume":"100","author":"Finger","year":"2003","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.USA"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pneurobio.2005.03.001","article-title":"The taste cell-related diffuse chemosensory system","volume":"75","author":"Sbarbati","year":"2005","journal-title":"Prog. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9320","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.75.19.9320-9327.2001","article-title":"Early spread of scrapie from the gastrointestinal tract to the central nervous system involves autonomic fibers of the splanchnic and vagus nerves","volume":"75","author":"McBride","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12731","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01930-12","article-title":"Rapid transepithelial transport of prions following inhalation","volume":"86","author":"Kincaid","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8293","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01103-16","article-title":"Specificity, size, and frequency of spaces that characterize the mechanism of bulk transepithelial transport of prions in the nasal cavities of hamsters and mice","volume":"90","author":"Kincaid","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"976","DOI":"10.1038\/nm0901-976","article-title":"Transepithelial prion transport by M cells","volume":"7","author":"Heppner","year":"2001","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1038\/mi.2011.68","article-title":"M cell-depletion blocks oral prion disease pathogenesis","volume":"5","author":"Donaldson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mucosa Immunol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elder, A.M., Henderson, D.M., Nalls, A.V., Wilham, J.M., Caughey, B.W., Hoover, E.A., Kincaid, A.E., Bartz, J.C., and Mathiason, C.K. (2013). In vitro detection of prionemia in TSE-infected cervids and hamsters. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0080203"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7421","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00760-15","article-title":"Immediate and ongoing detection of prions in the blood of hamsters and deer following oral, nasal, or blood inoculations","volume":"89","author":"Elder","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"588","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1742-4658.2007.05631.x","article-title":"The spread of prions through the body in naturally acquired transmissible spongiform encephalopathies","volume":"274","author":"Beekes","year":"2007","journal-title":"FEBS J."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2014.09.003","article-title":"Origins of the sympathetic innervation of the nasal-associated lymphoid tissue (NALT): An anatomical substrate for a neuroimmune connection","volume":"276","author":"Marafetti","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4546","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.80.9.4546-4556.2006","article-title":"Prion infection of oral and nasal mucosa","volume":"80","author":"DeJoia","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bessen, R.A., Shearin, H., Martinka, S., Boharski, R., Lowe, D., Wilham, J.M., Caughey, B., and Wiley, J.A. (2010). Prion shedding from olfactory neurons into nasal secretions. PLoS Pathog., 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1000837"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.025387-0","article-title":"BSE infectivity in the absence of detectable PrPSc accumulation in the tongue and nasal mucosa of terminally disease cattle","volume":"92","author":"Eiden","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1108","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.02699-15","article-title":"Antemortem detection of chronic wasting disease prions in nasal brush collections and rectal biopsy specimens from white-tailed deer by real-time quaking-induced conversion","volume":"54","author":"Haley","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1117","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.02700-15","article-title":"Seeded amplification of chronic wasting disease prions in nasal brushings and recto-anal mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue from elk by real-time quaking-induced conversion","volume":"54","author":"Haley","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa022043","article-title":"Detection of pathologic prion protein in the olfactory epithelium in sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease","volume":"348","author":"Zanusso","year":"2003","journal-title":"N. Eng. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.20038","article-title":"Prion deposition in olfactory biopsy of sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease","volume":"55","author":"Tabaton","year":"2004","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1315200","article-title":"A test for Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease using nasal brushings","volume":"371","author":"Orru","year":"2014","journal-title":"N. Eng. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46269","DOI":"10.1038\/srep46269","article-title":"Detection of prion seeding activity in the olfactory mucosa of patients with Fatal Familial Insomnia","volume":"7","author":"Redaelli","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e65311","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.65311","article-title":"PMCA-generated prions from the olfactory mucosa of patients with Fatal Familial Insomnia cause prion disease in mice","volume":"10","author":"Bistaffa","year":"2021","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Raymond, G.J., Race, B., Orru, C.D., Raymond, L.D., Bongianni, M., Fiorini, M., Groveman, B.R., Ferrari, S., Sacchetto, L., and Hughson, A.G. (2020). Transmission of CJD from nasal brushings but not spinal fluid or RT-Quic product. Ann. Clin. Transl. Neurol., 51057.","DOI":"10.1002\/acn3.51057"}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/13\/11\/2287\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:30:54Z","timestamp":1760167854000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/13\/11\/2287"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,16]]},"references-count":90,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11]]}},"alternative-id":["v13112287"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v13112287","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1999-4915"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,16]]}}}