{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]],"date-time":"2025-11-13T02:08:35Z","timestamp":1762999715680,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":24,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,16]],"date-time":"2021-11-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1637020800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001659","name":"Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["SFB-TR84 Z01b"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SFB-TR84 Z01b"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001659","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>With the exception of inactivated vaccines, all SARS-CoV-2 vaccines currently used for clinical application focus on the spike envelope glycoprotein as a virus-specific antigen. Compared to other SARS-CoV-2 genes, mutations in the spike protein gene are more rapidly selected and spread within the population, which carries the risk of impairing the efficacy of spike-based vaccines. It is unclear to what extent the loss of neutralizing antibody epitopes can be compensated by cellular immune responses, and whether the use of other SARS-CoV-2 antigens might cause a more diverse immune response and better long-term protection, particularly in light of the continued evolution towards new SARS-CoV-2 variants. To address this question, we explored immunogenicity and protective effects of adenoviral vectors encoding either the full-length spike protein (S), the nucleocapsid protein (N), the receptor binding domain (RBD) or a hybrid construct of RBD and the membrane protein (M) in a highly susceptible COVID-19 hamster model. All adenoviral vaccines provided life-saving protection against SARS-CoV-2-infection. The most efficient protection was achieved after exposure to full-length spike. However, the nucleocapsid protein, which triggered a robust T-cell response but did not facilitate the formation of neutralizing antibodies, controlled early virus replication efficiently and prevented severe pneumonia. Although the full-length spike protein is an excellent target for vaccines, it does not appear to be the only option for future vaccine design.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v13112290","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,17]],"date-time":"2021-11-17T21:32:07Z","timestamp":1637184727000},"page":"2290","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Deciphering the Role of Humoral and Cellular Immune Responses in Different COVID-19 Vaccines\u2014A Comparison of Vaccine Candidate Genes in Roborovski Dwarf Hamsters"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1616-0810","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jakob","family":"Trimpert","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Virology, Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 14163 Berlin, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Susanne","family":"Herwig","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gynecology, Charit\u00e9 Universit\u00e4tsmedizin Berlin, Campus Virchow Klinikum, 13353 Berlin, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9132-8073","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Julia","family":"Stein","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Medical Immunology, Charit\u00e9 Universit\u00e4tsmedizin Berlin, 13353 Berlin, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Daria","family":"Vladimirova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Virology, Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 14163 Berlin, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Julia M.","family":"Adler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Virology, Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 14163 Berlin, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Azza","family":"Abdelgawad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Virology, Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 14163 Berlin, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1378-4951","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Theresa C.","family":"Firsching","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 14163 Berlin, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tizia","family":"Thoma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Medical Immunology, Charit\u00e9 Universit\u00e4tsmedizin Berlin, 13353 Berlin, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jalid","family":"Sehouli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gynecology, Charit\u00e9 Universit\u00e4tsmedizin Berlin, Campus Virchow Klinikum, 13353 Berlin, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Klaus","family":"Osterrieder","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Public Health, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4502-0393","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Achim D.","family":"Gruber","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 14163 Berlin, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Birgit","family":"Sawitzki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Medical Immunology, Charit\u00e9 Universit\u00e4tsmedizin Berlin, 13353 Berlin, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Leif Erik","family":"Sander","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Infectious Diseases and Respiratory Medicine, Charit\u00e9 Universit\u00e4tsmedizin Berlin, 13353 Berlin, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"G\u00fcnter","family":"Cichon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gynecology, Charit\u00e9 Universit\u00e4tsmedizin Berlin, Campus Virchow Klinikum, 13353 Berlin, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.4149\/av_2020_201","article-title":"Coronavirus disease 2019: A new severe acute respiratory syndrome from Wuhan in China","volume":"64","author":"Cao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Virol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1007\/s13577-021-00512-4","article-title":"COVID-19 vaccines: Rapid development, implications, challenges and future prospects","volume":"34","author":"Kashte","year":"2021","journal-title":"Hum. 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