{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,16]],"date-time":"2026-04-16T21:15:20Z","timestamp":1776374120015,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":214,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,29]],"date-time":"2021-11-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1638144000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Institute of Drug Abuse","award":["DA048439 to JTB"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DA048439 to JTB"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Commonly misused substances such as alcohol, cocaine, heroin, methamphetamine, and opioids suppress immune responses and may impact viral pathogenesis. In recent years, illicit use of opioids has fueled outbreaks of several viral pathogens, including the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), and hepatitis C virus (HCV). This review focuses on the myriad of mechanisms by which drugs of abuse impact viral replication and disease progression. Virus\u2013drug interactions can accelerate viral disease progression and lead to increased risk of virus transmission.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v13122387","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,1]],"date-time":"2021-12-01T03:12:56Z","timestamp":1638328376000},"page":"2387","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":24,"title":["Drugs of Abuse and Their Impact on Viral Pathogenesis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2876-3811","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jason","family":"Blackard","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Digestive Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45267-0595, USA"},{"name":"Center for Addiction Research, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45267-0595, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kenneth","family":"Sherman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Digestive Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45267-0595, USA"},{"name":"Center for Addiction Research, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45267-0595, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (2021, August 22). The National Survey on Drug Use and Health: 2019, Available online: https:\/\/www.samhsa.gov\/data\/sites\/default\/files\/reports\/rpt29392\/Assistant-Secretary-nsduh2019_presentation\/Assistant-Secretary-nsduh2019_presentation.pdf."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.7326\/M17-1812","article-title":"Trends in US drug overdose deaths in non-Hispanic black, Hispanic, and non-Hispanic white persons, 2000\u20132015","volume":"168","author":"Shiels","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaau1184","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aau1184","article-title":"Changing dynamics of the drug overdose epidemic in the United States from 1979 through 2016","volume":"361","author":"Jalal","year":"2018","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"688","DOI":"10.1016\/j.annemergmed.2018.01.052","article-title":"Opportunities for Prevention and Intervention of Opioid Overdose in the Emergency Department","volume":"71","author":"Houry","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1419","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm675152e1","article-title":"Drug and Opioid-Involved Overdose Deaths\u2014United States, 2013\u20132017","volume":"67","author":"Scholl","year":"2018","journal-title":"MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm7006a4","article-title":"Trends and geographic patterns in drug and synthetic opioid overdose deaths\u2014United States, 2013\u20132019","volume":"70","author":"Mattson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"897","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6634a2","article-title":"Trends in Deaths Involving Heroin and Synthetic Opioids Excluding Methadone, and Law Enforcement Drug Product Reports, by Census Region\u2014United States, 2006\u20132015","volume":"66","author":"Gladden","year":"2017","journal-title":"MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6614a2","article-title":"Characteristics of fentanyl overdose\u2014Massachusetts, 2014\u20132016","volume":"66","author":"Somerville","year":"2017","journal-title":"Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"1378","article-title":"Increases in Drug and Opioid Overdose Deaths-United States, 2000\u20132014","volume":"64","author":"Rudd","year":"2016","journal-title":"Arab. Archaeol. Epigr."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"719","article-title":"Vital signs: Demographic and substance use trends among heroin users\u2014United States, 2002\u20132013","volume":"64","author":"Jones","year":"2015","journal-title":"MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6802a4","article-title":"Notes from the Field: Fentanyl Drug Submissions\u2014United States, 2010\u20132017","volume":"68","author":"Springer","year":"2019","journal-title":"MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6910a4","article-title":"Notes from the Field: Opioid-Involved Overdose Deaths with Fentanyl or Fentanyl Analogs Detected\u201428 States and the District of Columbia, July 2016\u2013December 2018","volume":"69","author":"Gladden","year":"2020","journal-title":"MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2717","DOI":"10.1111\/bph.13750","article-title":"Opioids and the immune system\u2014friend or foe","volume":"175","author":"Plein","year":"2018","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1007\/s11481-011-9292-5","article-title":"Opioid Drug Abuse and Modulation of Immune Function: Consequences in the Susceptibility to Opportunistic Infections","volume":"6","author":"Roy","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmune Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"486","DOI":"10.1093\/clinids\/11.3.486","article-title":"Infectious Complications in Drug Addicts: Seven-Year Review of 269 Hospitalized Narcotics Abusers in Switzerland","volume":"11","author":"Scheidegger","year":"1989","journal-title":"Rev. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"1777","article-title":"A 10-year follow-up study on the health status of heroin addicts based on official registers","volume":"96","author":"Vilaregut","year":"2001","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"849","DOI":"10.1016\/0895-4356(89)90098-X","article-title":"Infectiousness of HIV between male homosexual partners","volume":"42","author":"DeGruttolla","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Clin. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMp1507252","article-title":"Threading the Needle\u2014How to Stop the HIV Outbreak in Rural Indiana","volume":"373","author":"Strathdee","year":"2015","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"443","article-title":"Community outbreak of HIV infection linked to injection drug use of oxymorphone\u2014Indiana, 2015","volume":"64","author":"Conrad","year":"2015","journal-title":"Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2018.10.007","article-title":"A large HCV transmission network enabled a fast-growing HIV outbreak in rural Indiana, 2015","volume":"37","author":"Ramachandran","year":"2018","journal-title":"EBioMedicine"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"453","article-title":"Increases in hepatitis C virus infection related to injection drug use among persons aged \u226430 years\u2014Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia, 2006\u20132012","volume":"64","author":"Zibbell","year":"2015","journal-title":"MWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6708a6","article-title":"Notes from the Field: HIV Infection Investigation in a Rural Area\u2014West Virginia, 2017","volume":"67","author":"Evans","year":"2018","journal-title":"MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2019.305366","article-title":"Opioid Use Fueling HIV Transmission in an Urban Setting: An Outbreak of HIV Infection among People Who Inject Drugs\u2014Massachusetts, 2015\u20132018","volume":"110","author":"Alpren","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6815a2","article-title":"Outbreak of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection among Heterosexual Persons Who Are Living Homeless and Inject Drugs\u2014Seattle, Washington, 2018","volume":"68","author":"Golden","year":"2019","journal-title":"MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6916a2","article-title":"Notes from the Field: Outbreak of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection among Persons Who Inject Drugs\u2014Cabell County, West Virginia, 2018\u20132019","volume":"69","author":"Atkins","year":"2020","journal-title":"MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6707a6","article-title":"Increase in acute hepatitis B infections\u2014Pasco County, Florida, 2011\u20132016","volume":"67","author":"Comer","year":"2018","journal-title":"Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6503a2","article-title":"Increases in acute hepatitis B virus infections\u2014Kentucky, Tennessee, and West Virginia, 2006\u20132013","volume":"65","author":"Harris","year":"2016","journal-title":"Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1192","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(17)30375-3","article-title":"Global prevalence of injecting drug use and sociodemographic characteristics and prevalence of HIV, HBV, and HCV in people who inject drugs: A multistage systematic review","volume":"5","author":"Degenhardt","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1186\/s13011-019-0246-x","article-title":"People who inject drugs (PWID) and HIV\/aids cases in Mexico City: 1987\u20132015","volume":"14","author":"Mendoza","year":"2019","journal-title":"Subst. Abus. Treat. Prev. Policy"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2017.10.020","article-title":"Substance use patterns associated with recent exposure to fentanyl among people who inject drugs in Vancouver, Canada: A cross-sectional urine toxicology screening study","volume":"183","author":"Hayashi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102989","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugpo.2020.102989","article-title":"Drug-related deaths in a population-level cohort of people living with and without hepatitis C virus in British Columbia, Canada","volume":"86","author":"Samji","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Drug Policy"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2120","DOI":"10.1097\/01.aids.0000247586.23696.20","article-title":"High HIV prevalence among injecting drug users in Estonia: Implications for understanding the risk environment","volume":"20","author":"Platt","year":"2006","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugpo.2009.02.007","article-title":"HIV infection and risk behaviour of primary fentanyl and amphetamine injectors in Tallinn, Estonia: Implications for intervention","volume":"21","author":"Talu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Drug Policy"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugpo.2017.11.010","article-title":"Differences in risk behaviours and HIV status between primary amphetamines and opioid injectors in Estonia and Russia","volume":"53","author":"Platt","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Drug Policy"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1247","DOI":"10.2741\/3306","article-title":"The evolution of vertebrate opioid receptors","volume":"14","author":"Stevens","year":"2009","journal-title":"Front. Biosci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-med-062613-093100","article-title":"Opioid receptors","volume":"67","author":"Stein","year":"2016","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Med."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.pharmtox.40.1.389","article-title":"Molecular Mechanisms and Regulation of Opioid Receptor Signaling","volume":"40","author":"Law","year":"2000","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"970","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2016.00970","article-title":"Opioids and viral infections: A double-edged sword","volume":"7","author":"Tahamtan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1007\/s13365-011-0037-2","article-title":"Role of mu-opioid receptors as cofactors in human immunodeificiency virus type 1 disease progression and neuorpathogenesis","volume":"17","author":"Banerjee","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Neurovirol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-5728(95)00089-K","article-title":"beta-Endorphin enhances the replication of neurotropic human immunodeficiency virus in fetal perivascular microglia","volume":"61","author":"Sundar","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1016\/S0028-3908(98)00167-1","article-title":"Endomorphin-1 potentiates HIV-1 expression in human brain cell cultures: Implication of an atypical mu-opioid receptor","volume":"38","author":"Peterson","year":"1999","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-2952(95)00176-Z","article-title":"Upregulation of HIV-1 expression in cocultures of chronically infected promonocytes and human brain cells by dynorphin","volume":"50","author":"Chao","year":"1995","journal-title":"Biochem. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1163","DOI":"10.1089\/aid.1990.6.1163","article-title":"Morphine-Induced Transactivation of HIV-1 LTR in Human Neuroblastoma Cells","volume":"6","author":"Squinto","year":"1990","journal-title":"AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-5728(94)90043-4","article-title":"Morphine amplifies HIV-1 expression in chronically infected promonocytes cocultured with human brain cells","volume":"50","author":"Peterson","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/0923-2516(91)90056-9","article-title":"Morphine stimulates HIV replication in primary cultures of human Kupffer cells","volume":"142","author":"Schweitzer","year":"1991","journal-title":"Res. Virol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1186\/1742-6405-11-17","article-title":"The effects of opioids on HIV reactivation in latently-infected T-lymphoblasts","volume":"11","author":"Prottengeier","year":"2014","journal-title":"AIDS Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.177.1.739","article-title":"Circulating and Liver Resident CD4+CD25+ Regulatory T Cells Actively Influence the Antiviral Immune Response and Disease Progression in Patients with Hepatitis","volume":"177","author":"Xu","year":"2006","journal-title":"B. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1203\/01.PDR.0000074973.83826.4C","article-title":"Morphine Enhances HIV Infection of Neonatal Macrophages","volume":"54","author":"Li","year":"2003","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Wang, X., Ye, L., Li, J., Song, L., Fulambarkar, N., and Ho, W. (2012). Morphine Suppresses IFN Signaling Pathway and Enhances AIDS Virus Infection. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0031167"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1136\/jim-50-06-03","article-title":"Morphine enhances HIV infection of human blood mononuclear phagocytes through modulation of beta-chemokines and CCR5 receptor","volume":"50","author":"Guo","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Investig. Med."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"1077","article-title":"Activation of the \u03b4-opioid receptor inhibits serum deprivation-induced apoptosis of human liver cells via the activation of PKC and the mitochondrial pathway","volume":"28","author":"Tang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2601","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.02601","article-title":"Morphine Withdrawal Enhances HIV Infection of Macrophages","volume":"10","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"753","DOI":"10.1097\/QAD.0000000000001398","article-title":"Productive infection of human neural progenitor cells by R5 tropic HIV-1: Opiate co-exposure heightens infectivity and functional vulnerability","volume":"31","author":"Balinang","year":"2017","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2100","DOI":"10.1002\/jnr.21653","article-title":"Cell-specific actions of HIV-Tat and morphine on opioid receptor expression in glia","volume":"86","author":"Dimayuga","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Res."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1471-4159.2008.05756.x","article-title":"Morphine and HIV-Tat increase microglial-free radical production and oxidative stress: Possible role in cytokine regulation","volume":"108","author":"Dimayuga","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Neurochem."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"614","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2015.00614","article-title":"HIV-1 gp120 and morphine induced oxidative stress: Role in cell cycle regulation","volume":"6","author":"Samikkannu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134475","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2019.134475","article-title":"Cell-type specific differences in antiretroviral penetration and the effects of HIV-1 Tat and morphine among primary human brain endothelial cells, astrocytes, pericytes, and microglia","volume":"712","author":"Patel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-018-1320-4","article-title":"A central role for glial CCR5 in directing the neuropathological interactions of HIV-1 Tat and opiates","volume":"15","author":"Kim","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, K., Phan, T., Lin, A., Sardo, L., Mele, A.R., Nonnemacher, M.R., and Klase, Z. (2020). Morphine exposure exacerbates HIV-1 Tat driven changes to neuroinflammatory factors in cultured astrocytes. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0230563"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1630","DOI":"10.1002\/glia.21035","article-title":"Morphine induces the release of CCL5 from astrocytes: Potential neuroprotective mechanism against the HIV protein gp120","volume":"58","author":"Avdoshina","year":"2010","journal-title":"Glia"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1089\/mdr.2015.0347","article-title":"Morphine Increases Lamivudine- and Nevirapine-Induced Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1 Drug-Resistant MutationsIn Vitro","volume":"23","author":"Liang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Microb. Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1007\/s13365-018-0715-4","article-title":"Morphine counteracts the antiviral effect of antiretroviral drugs and causes upregulation of p62\/SQSTM1 and histone-modifying enzymes in HIV-infected astrocytes","volume":"25","author":"Rodriguez","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Neurovirol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1007\/s11481-018-9805-6","article-title":"Morphine Potentiates Dysbiotic Microbial and Metabolic Shifts in Acute SIV Infection","volume":"14","author":"Sindberg","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmune Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Acharya, A., Olwenyi, O.A., Thurman, M., Pandey, K., Morsey, B.M., Lamberty, B., Ferguson, N., Callen, S., Fang, Q., and Buch, S.J. (2020). Chronic morphine administration differentially modulates viral reservoirs in SIVmac251 infected rhesus macaque model. J. Virol.","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.09.09.290700"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1230","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2015.01230","article-title":"Heroin inhibits HIV-restriction miRNAs and enhances HIV infection of macrophages","volume":"6","author":"Wang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"400","DOI":"10.1007\/s11481-019-09892-9","article-title":"Heroin Abuse and\/or HIV Infection Dysregulate Plasma Exosomal miRNAs","volume":"15","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmune Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micinf.2017.01.002","article-title":"Heroin use is associated with lower levels of restriction factors and type I interferon expression and facilitates HIV-1 replication","volume":"19","author":"Zhu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1086\/338011","article-title":"Methadone enhances human immunodeficiency virus infection of human immune cells","volume":"185","author":"Li","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1253","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.01253","article-title":"Methadone Inhibits Viral Restriction Factors and Facilitates HIV Infection in Macrophages","volume":"11","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Springer, S.A., Qiu, J., Saber-Tehrani, A.S., and Altice, F.L. (2012). Retention on Buprenorphine Is Associated with High Levels of Maximal Viral Suppression among HIV-Infected Opioid Dependent Released Prisoners. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0038335"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gornalusse, G.G., Vojtech, L.N., Levy, C.N., Hughes, S.M., Kim, Y., Valdez, R., Pandey, U., Ochsenbauer, C., Astronomo, R., and McElrath, J. (2021). Buprenorphine Increases HIV-1 Infection In Vitro but Does Not Reactivate HIV-1 from Latency. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13081472"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1002\/JLB.5AB0420-531R","article-title":"Treatment with buprenorphine prior to EcoHIV infection of mice prevents the development of neurocognitive impairment","volume":"109","author":"Kelschenbach","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Leukoc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kong, L., Karns, R., Shata, M., Brown, J.L., Lyons, M.S., Sherman, K.E., and Blackard, J.T. (2021). The synthetic opioid fentanyl enhances viral replication in vitro. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0249581"},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"Kong, L., Karns, R., Shata, M.T.M., Brown, J.L., Lyons, M.S., Sherman, K.E., and Blackard, J.T. The synthetic opioid fentanyl increases HIV replication in vitro. Proceedings of the HIV and Liver Disease, Jackson Hole, WY, USA."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1016\/0143-4179(85)90029-0","article-title":"Opiate receptor-mediated chemotaxis of human monocytes","volume":"5","author":"Ruff","year":"1985","journal-title":"Neuropeptides"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3046","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.132.6.3046","article-title":"Beta-endorphin and met-enkephalin stimulate human peripheral blood mononuclear cell chemotaxis","volume":"132","author":"Saland","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.188.2.317","article-title":"Opiates Transdeactivate Chemokine Receptors: \u03b4 and \u03bc Opiate Receptor\u2013mediated Heterologous Desensitization","volume":"188","author":"Grimm","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.2000.tb05369.x","article-title":"Bidirectional Heterologous Desensitization of Opioid and Chemokine Receptors","volume":"917","author":"Rogers","year":"2000","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1016\/S1359-6101(02)00007-2","article-title":"Interactions between opioid and chemokine receptors: Heterologous desensitization","volume":"13","author":"Steele","year":"2002","journal-title":"Cytokine Growth Factor Rev."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8647","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jmedchem.5b01245","article-title":"Inhibition of inflammatory and neuropathic pain by targeting a mu opioid receptor\/chemokine receptor 5 heteromer (MOR-CCR5)","volume":"58","author":"Akgun","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5969","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bmc.2016.09.059","article-title":"Exploration of bivalent ligands targeting putative mu opioid receptor and chemokine receptor CCR5 dimerization","volume":"24","author":"Arnatt","year":"2016","journal-title":"Bioorg. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2318","DOI":"10.1021\/acsmedchemlett.0c00444","article-title":"Bivalent Ligand Aiming Putative Mu Opioid Receptor and Chemokine Receptor CXCR4 Dimers in Opioid Enhanced HIV-1 Entry","volume":"11","author":"Ma","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Med. Chem. Lett."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7702","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jmedchem.1c00408","article-title":"Structure-Based Design and Development of Chemical Probes Targeting Putative MOR-CCR5 Heterodimers to Inhibit Opioid Exacerbated HIV-1 Infectivity","volume":"64","author":"Huang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1007\/s11481-011-9297-0","article-title":"Cocaine and HIV-1 Interplay: Molecular Mechanisms of Action and Addiction","volume":"6","author":"Buch","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmune Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1007\/s13365-015-0398-z","article-title":"The effects of cocaine on HIV transcription","volume":"22","author":"Tyagi","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Neurovirol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1097\/QAI.0b013e3181900129","article-title":"Crack-Cocaine Use Accelerates HIV Disease Progression in a Cohort of HIV-Positive Drug Users","volume":"50","author":"Baum","year":"2009","journal-title":"JAIDS J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1355","DOI":"10.1097\/QAD.0b013e32830507f2","article-title":"Crack cocaine, disease progression, and mortality in a multicenter cohort of HIV-1 positive women","volume":"22","author":"Cook","year":"2008","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1257","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2008.07.010","article-title":"Stimulant use is associated with immune activation and depleted tryptophan among HIV-positive persons on anti-retroviral therapy","volume":"22","author":"Carrico","year":"2008","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1080\/13550280701528684","article-title":"Cocaine-mediated enhancement of virus replication in macrophages: Implications for human immunodeficiency virus\u2013associated dementia","volume":"13","author":"Dhillon","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Neurovirol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"823","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2016.00823","article-title":"Cocaine Enhances HIV-1 Transcription in Macrophages by Inducing p38 MAPK Phosphorylation","volume":"7","author":"Swepson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2015.03.036","article-title":"Cocaine promotes both initiation and elongation phase of HIV-1 transcription by activating NF-\u03baB and MSK1 and inducing selective epigenetic modifications at HIV-1 LTR","volume":"483","author":"Sahu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1157","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/168.5.1157","article-title":"Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Replication in Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells in the Presence of Cocaine","volume":"168","author":"Bagasra","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Napuri, J., Pilakka-Kanthikeel, S., Raymond, A., Agudelo, M., Yndart-Arias, A., Saxena, S.K., and Nair, M. (2013). Cocaine Enhances HIV-1 Infectivity in Monocyte Derived Dendritic Cells by Suppressing microRNA-155. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0083682"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"676","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.149.2.676","article-title":"Cocaine amplifies HIV-1 replication in cytomegalovirus-stimulated peripheral blood mononuclear cell cocultures","volume":"149","author":"Peterson","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2006.09.034","article-title":"Proteomic analysis of the effects of cocaine on the enhancement of HIV-1 replication in normal human astrocytes (NHA)","volume":"1123","author":"Reynolds","year":"2006","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"600","DOI":"10.1124\/jpet.103.060160","article-title":"\u03ba-Opioid Receptor Ligands Inhibit Cocaine-Induced HIV-1 Expression in Microglial Cells","volume":"309","author":"Gekker","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1007\/s11481-018-9807-4","article-title":"Sigma-1 Receptor Antagonist (BD1047) Decreases Cathepsin B Secretion in HIV-Infected Macrophages Exposed to Cocaine","volume":"14","author":"Gorantla","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmune Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mantri, C.K., Dash, J.P., Mantri, J.V., and Dash, C. (2012). Cocaine Enhances HIV-1 Replication in CD4+ T Cells by Down-Regulating MiR-125b. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0051387"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.2174\/1570162054368048","article-title":"Morphine Exacerbates HIV-1 Viral Protein gp120 Induced Modulation of Chemokine Gene Expression in U373 Astrocytoma Cells","volume":"3","author":"Mahajan","year":"2005","journal-title":"Curr. HIV Res."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1080\/13550280590952835","article-title":"Cocaine increases human immunodeficiency virus type 1 neuroinvasion through remodeling brain microvascular endothelial cells","volume":"11","author":"Fiala","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Neurovirol."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1086\/339012","article-title":"Cocaine Enhances Human Immunodeficiency Virus Replication in a Model of Severe Combined Immunodeficient Mice Implanted with Human Peripheral Blood Leukocytes","volume":"185","author":"Roth","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1198","DOI":"10.1189\/jlb.0405219","article-title":"Cocaine and -1 receptors modulate HIV infection, chemokine receptors, and the HPA axis in the huPBL-SCID model","volume":"78","author":"Roth","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Leukoc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Doke, M., Jeganathan, V., McLaughlin, J.P., and Samikkannu, T. (2020). HIV-1 Tat and cocaine impact mitochondrial epigenetics: Effects on DNA methylation. Epigenetics, 1\u201320.","DOI":"10.1080\/15592294.2020.1834919"},{"key":"ref_104","first-page":"s108","article-title":"Accessing the cure: Helping patients with hepatitis C overcome barriers to care","volume":"22","author":"Rodriguez","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Manag. Care"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Samikkannu, T., Rao, K.V., Ding, H., Agudelo, M., Raymond, A.D., Yoo, C., and Nair, M.P. (2014). Immunopathogenesis of HIV Infection in Cocaine Users: Role of Arachidonic Acid. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0106348"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Han, B., Compton, W.M., Jones, C.M., Einstein, E.B., and Volkow, N.D. (2021). Methamphetamine Use, Methamphetamine Use Disorder, and Associated Overdose Deaths among US Adults. JAMA Psychiatry.","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapsychiatry.2021.2588"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.maturitas.2018.12.003","article-title":"Methamphetamine and its immune-modulating effects","volume":"121","author":"Papageorgiou","year":"2019","journal-title":"Maturitas"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"srep13179","DOI":"10.1038\/srep13179","article-title":"Methamphetamine Use in HIV-infected Individuals Affects T-cell Function and Viral Outcome during Suppressive Antiretroviral Therapy","volume":"5","author":"Massanella","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1097\/QAI.0000000000001643","article-title":"Brief Report: Recent Methamphetamine Use Is Associated with Increased Rectal Mucosal Inflammatory Cytokines, Regardless of HIV-1 Serostatus","volume":"78","author":"Fulcher","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAIDS J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Harms, R., Morsey, B., Boyer, C.W., Fox, H.S., and Sarvetnick, N. (2012). Methamphetamine Administration Targets Multiple Immune Subsets and Induces Phenotypic Alterations Suggestive of Immunosuppression. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0049897"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1007\/s10461-007-9337-1","article-title":"Factors Associated with HIV Viral Load in a Respondent Driven Sample in Los Angeles","volume":"13","author":"King","year":"2009","journal-title":"AIDS Behav."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6379","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00771-16","article-title":"Functional Upregulation of the DNA Cytosine Deaminase APOBEC3B by Polyomaviruses","volume":"90","author":"Verhalen","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1820","DOI":"10.1086\/379894","article-title":"Increased Human Immunodeficiency Virus Loads in Active Methamphetamine Users Are Explained by Reduced Effectiveness of Antiretroviral Therapy","volume":"188","author":"Ellis","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1002\/syn.20512","article-title":"The combination of methamphetamine and of the HIV protein, Tat, induces death of the human neuroblastoma cell line, SH-SY5Y","volume":"62","author":"Cai","year":"2008","journal-title":"Synapse"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1080\/13550280490520961","article-title":"The role of mitochondrial alterations in the combined toxic effects of human immunodeficiency virus Tat protein and methamphetamine on calbindin positive-neurons","volume":"10","author":"Langford","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Neurovirol."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1129","DOI":"10.1089\/aid.2012.0264","article-title":"Methamphetamine Inhibits Toll-Like Receptor 9-Mediated Anti-HIV Activity in Macrophages","volume":"29","author":"Cen","year":"2013","journal-title":"AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajpath.2013.09.011","article-title":"Methamphetamine inhibits HIV-1 replication in CD4+ T cells by modulating anti-HIV-1 miRNA expression","volume":"184","author":"Mantri","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1617","DOI":"10.2353\/ajpath.2008.070971","article-title":"Methamphetamine Enhances HIV Infection of Macrophages","volume":"172","author":"Liang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.00136","article-title":"Methamphetamine enhances HIV-1 replication in CD4+ T-cells via a novel IL-1b auto-regulatory loop","volume":"11","author":"Lawson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1007\/s11481-008-9128-0","article-title":"Methamphetamine enhances HIV-1 infectivity in monocyte derived dendritic cells","volume":"4","author":"Nair","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmune Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"987","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2010.09.019","article-title":"Effect of methamphetamine on expression of HIV coreceptors and CC-chemokines by dendritic cells","volume":"88","author":"Nair","year":"2011","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"958","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-35757-x","article-title":"Methamphetamine functions as a novel CD4+ T-cell activator via the sigma-1 receptor to enhance HIV-1 infection","volume":"9","author":"Prasad","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.RA117.000795","article-title":"Methamphetamine increases HIV infectivity in neural progenitor cells","volume":"293","author":"Skowronska","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1117","DOI":"10.1089\/aid.2008.0282","article-title":"Methamphetamine Treatment Increases in Vitro and in Vivo HIV Replication","volume":"25","author":"Toussi","year":"2009","journal-title":"AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir."},{"key":"ref_125","unstructured":"Administration, S. (2020). Key Substance Use and Mental Health Indicators in the United States: Results from the 2019 National Survey on Drug Use and Health, FRU."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1007\/s00038-009-0095-x","article-title":"Alcohol consumption and risk of incident human immunodeficiency virus infection: A meta-analysis","volume":"55","author":"Baliunas","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jadohealth.2008.05.008","article-title":"Alcohol, Helping Young Adults to Have Unprotected Sex with Casual Partners: Findings from a Daily Diary Study of Alcohol Use and Sexual Behavior","volume":"44","author":"Kiene","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Adolesc. Health"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1016\/j.whi.2018.04.004","article-title":"Associations of Drug Use, Violence, and Depressive Symptoms with Sexual Risk Behaviors among Women with Alcohol Misuse","volume":"28","author":"Lee","year":"2018","journal-title":"Women\u2019s Health Issues"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.15288\/jsad.2012.73.351","article-title":"Intimate Partner Violence and Patterns of Alcohol Abuse and Dependence Criteria among Women: A Latent Class Analysis","volume":"73","author":"Bradshaw","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Stud. Alcohol Drugs"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3443","DOI":"10.1007\/s10461-018-2085-6","article-title":"Time Spent with HIV Viral Load > 1500 Copies\/mL among Persons Engaged in Continuity HIV Care in an Urban Clinic in the United States, 2010\u20132015","volume":"22","author":"Lesko","year":"2018","journal-title":"AIDS Behav."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2056","DOI":"10.1111\/acer.13204","article-title":"Alcohol Use and Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Infection: Current Knowledge, Implications, and Future Directions","volume":"40","author":"Williams","year":"2016","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.alcohol.2018.08.012","article-title":"Alcohol consumption increases susceptibility to pneumococcal pneumonia in a humanized murine HIV model mediated by intestinal dysbiosis","volume":"80","author":"Samuelson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Alcohol"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"755","DOI":"10.1007\/s00408-016-9920-1","article-title":"Presence of an Alcohol Use Disorder is Associated with Greater Pneumonia Severity in Hospitalized HIV-Infected Patients","volume":"194","author":"Jolley","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lung"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1530-0277.2006.00271.x","article-title":"HIV-1 gp120 as Well as Alcohol Affect Blood\u2013Brain Barrier Permeability and Stress Fiber Formation: Involvement of Reactive Oxygen Species","volume":"31","author":"Shiu","year":"2007","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1499","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.2003.034223","article-title":"Survey of hepatitis B surface variant infection in children 15 years after a nationwide vaccination programme in Taiwan","volume":"53","author":"Hsu","year":"2004","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/S0042-6822(02)00031-4","article-title":"HIV-1 infection in peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBLs) exposed to alcohol","volume":"307","author":"Liu","year":"2003","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1880","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1530-0277.2002.tb02496.x","article-title":"Alcohol potentiates HIV-1 infection of human blood mononuclear phagocytes","volume":"26","author":"Wang","year":"2002","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1445","DOI":"10.1097\/01.qai.0000129572.13008.db","article-title":"Ethanol Stimulation of HIV Infection of Oral Epithelial Cells","volume":"37","author":"Zheng","year":"2004","journal-title":"JAIDS J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr."},{"key":"ref_139","first-page":"1048","article-title":"The impact of ethanol on increasing HIV-1 replications in U1 cells","volume":"5","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Res. HIV\/AIDS"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1452","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2015.01452","article-title":"Alcohol and Cannabinoids Differentially Affect HIV Infection and Function of Human Monocyte-Derived Dendritic Cells (MDDC)","volume":"6","author":"Agudelo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1281","DOI":"10.3892\/ijo.2013.2046","article-title":"Upregulation of the \u03b4 opioid receptor in liver cancer promotes liver cancer progression both in vitro and in vivo","volume":"43","author":"Tang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1731","DOI":"10.3892\/or.2013.2640","article-title":"In vivo and in vitro inhibition of human liver cancer progress by downregulation of the \u03bc-opioid receptor and relevant mechanisms","volume":"30","author":"Lu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Oncol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2742","DOI":"10.1007\/s10620-011-1659-1","article-title":"Prospective Evaluation of FibroScan for the Diagnosis of Hepatic Fibrosis Compared with Liver Biopsy\/AST Platelet Ratio Index and FIB-4 in Patients with Chronic HBV Infection","volume":"56","author":"Zhu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Dig. Dis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"839","DOI":"10.3892\/mmr.2014.2301","article-title":"Activated \u03b4-opioid receptors inhibit hydrogen peroxide-induced apoptosis in liver cancer cells through the PKC\/ERK signaling pathwa","volume":"10","author":"Jia","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mol. Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.2007.120303","article-title":"Role of endogenous opioids in modulating HSC activity in vitro and liver fibrosis in vivo","volume":"57","author":"Candelaresi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1136","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.20428","article-title":"Opioid receptor blockade reduces Fas-induced hepatitis in mice","volume":"40","author":"Jaume","year":"2004","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1606","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.2005.076778","article-title":"Naltrexone, an opioid receptor antagonist, attenuates liver fibrosis in bile duct ligated rats","volume":"55","author":"Ebrahimkhani","year":"2006","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"902","DOI":"10.1007\/s12072-016-9758-x","article-title":"Hepatic stellate cells: Fibrogenic, regenerative or both? Heterogeneity and context are key","volume":"10","author":"Bansal","year":"2016","journal-title":"Hepatol. Int."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2893.2007.00940.x","article-title":"Methamphetamine enhances Hepatitis C virus replication in human hepatocytes","volume":"15","author":"Ye","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Viral Hepat."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1167","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9440(10)63476-1","article-title":"Morphine Enhances Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) Replicon Expression","volume":"163","author":"Li","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1007\/s11481-014-9577-6","article-title":"Heroin use promotes HCV infection and dysregulates HCV-related circulating microRNAs","volume":"10","author":"Zhou","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmune Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1086\/520093","article-title":"Morphine Inhibits Intrahepatic Interferon-\u03b1 Expression and Enhances Complete Hepatitis C Virus Replication","volume":"196","author":"Li","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1333","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9440(10)61220-5","article-title":"Morphine Withdrawal Enhances Hepatitis C Virus Replicon Expression","volume":"167","author":"Wang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1186\/s40001-018-0317-x","article-title":"miRNAs regulate immune response and signaling during hepatitis C virus infection","volume":"23","author":"Zhu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. J. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcv.2007.08.021","article-title":"Factors associated with hepatitis C viremia in a large cohort of HIV-infected and -uninfected women","volume":"41","author":"Operskalski","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Clin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1691","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199606273342602","article-title":"Routes of Infection, Viremia, and Liver Disease in Blood Donors Found to Have Hepatitis C Virus Infection","volume":"334","author":"VanRaden","year":"1996","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S392","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiaa142","article-title":"Psychosocial Factors and the Care Cascade for Hepatitis C Treatment Colocated at a Syringe Service Program","volume":"222","author":"Winetsky","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1176","DOI":"10.1089\/jwh.2019.7954","article-title":"Sex Differences, Cocaine Use, and Liver Fibrosis among African Americans in the Miami Adult Studies on HIV Cohort","volume":"29","author":"Zarini","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Women\u2019s Health"},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martel-Laferri\u00e8re, V., Nitulescu, R., Cox, J., Cooper, C., Tyndall, M., Rouleau, D., Walmsley, S., Wong, L., Klein, M.B., and for the Canadian Co-infection Cohort Study Investigators (2017). Cocaine\/crack use is not associated with fibrosis progression measured by AST-to-Platelet Ratio Index in HIV-HCV co-infected patients: A cohort study. BMC Infect. Dis., 17.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-017-2196-0"},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"538","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.26400","article-title":"Prevalence and predictors of hepatitis B virus coinfection in a United States cohort of hepatitis C virus-infected patients","volume":"58","author":"Tyson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1571","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.27310","article-title":"Phylogenetic clustering of hepatitis C virus among people who inject drugs in Vancouver, Canada","volume":"60","author":"Jacka","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e005419","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2014-005419","article-title":"Prescription opioid injection and risk of hepatitis C in relation to traditional drugs of misuse in a prospective cohort of street youth","volume":"4","author":"Hadland","year":"2014","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jadohealth.2008.08.007","article-title":"Methamphetamine Injection Independently Predicts Hepatitis C Infection among Street-Involved Youth in a Canadian Setting","volume":"44","author":"Miller","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Adolesc. Health"},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2015.04.005","article-title":"Methamphetamine injecting is associated with phylogenetic clustering of hepatitis C virus infection among street-involved youth in Vancouver, Canada","volume":"152","author":"Cunningham","year":"2015","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.1111\/apt.12265","article-title":"Moderate, excessive or heavy alcohol consumption: Each is significantly associated with increased mortality in patients with chronic hepatitis C","volume":"37","author":"Younossi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1002\/hep4.1464","article-title":"Alcohol Use and Long-Term Outcomes among, U.S. Veterans Who Received Direct-Acting Antivirals for Hepatitis C Treatment","volume":"4","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hepatol. Commun."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1032","DOI":"10.1086\/514750","article-title":"Chronic Active Hepatitis B Exacerbations in Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Infected Patients Following Development of Resistance to or Withdrawal of Lamivudine","volume":"28","author":"Bessesen","year":"1999","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1440-1746.2001.02462.x","article-title":"Difference in quasispecies of the hypervariable region 1 of hepatitis C virus between alcoholic and non-alcoholic patients","volume":"16","author":"Takahashi","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1337","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v16.i11.1337","article-title":"Impact of alcohol on hepatitis C virus replication and interferon signaling","volume":"16","author":"McCartney","year":"2010","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.1111\/acer.12005","article-title":"Alcohol Facilitates HCV RNA Replication Via Up-Regulation of miR-122 Expression and Inhibition of Cyclin G1 in Human Hepatoma Cells","volume":"37","author":"Hou","year":"2013","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1086\/509897","article-title":"Negative-Strand Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) RNA in Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells from Anti-HCV-Positive\/HIV-Infected Women","volume":"195","author":"Laskus","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2248","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1572-0241.2008.01948.x","article-title":"Natural Course of Chronic HCV and HBV Infection and Role of Alcohol in the General Population: The Dionysos Study","volume":"103","author":"Bedogni","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"792","DOI":"10.1053\/jhep.2001.27565","article-title":"Chronic ethanol consumption stimulates hepatitis B virus gene expression and replication in transgenic mice","volume":"34","author":"Larkin","year":"2001","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/0168-8278(95)80329-7","article-title":"Effects of ethanol on hepatitis B virus Pre-S\/S gene expression in the human hepatocellular carcinoma derived HEP G2 hepatitis B DNA positive cell line","volume":"23","author":"Kremsdorf","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.3109\/16066359.2014.920013","article-title":"A review of the literature concerning HIV and cigarette smoking: Morbidity and mortality, associations with individual- and social-level characteristics, and smoking cessation efforts","volume":"23","author":"Pacek","year":"2015","journal-title":"Addict. Res. Theory"},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e652","DOI":"10.1016\/S2352-3018(21)00156-9","article-title":"Harm reduction for smokers living with HIV","volume":"8","author":"Shuter","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet HIV"},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Valiathan, R., Miguez, M.J., Patel, B., Arheart, K.L., and Asthana, D. (2014). Tobacco Smoking Increases Immune Activation and Impairs T-Cell Function in HIV Infected Patients on Antiretrovirals: A Cross-Sectional Pilot Study. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0097698"},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ande, A., McArthur, C., Ayuk, L., Awasom, C., Achu, P.N., Njinda, A., Sinha, N., Rao, P.S.S., Agudelo, M., and Nookala, A.R. (2015). Effect of Mild-to-Moderate Smoking on Viral Load, Cytokines, Oxidative Stress, and Cytochrome P450 Enzymes in HIV-Infected Individuals. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0122402"},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1080\/13550280701620747","article-title":"Associations of cigarette smoking with viral immune and cognitive function in human immunodeficiency virus\u2013seropositive women","volume":"13","author":"Wojna","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Neurovirol."},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"859","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/172.3.859","article-title":"Enhanced Production of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 by In Vitro-Infected Alveolar Macrophages from Otherwise Healthy Cigarette Smokers","volume":"172","author":"Abbud","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tox.2010.09.010","article-title":"Mechanisms and genes involved in enhancement of HIV infectivity by tobacco smoke","volume":"278","author":"Zhao","year":"2010","journal-title":"Toxicology"},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1007\/s11481-007-9098-7","article-title":"Potentiation of HIV-1 expression in microglial cells by nicotine: Involvement of transforming growth factor-\u03b21","volume":"3","author":"Rock","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmune Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16120","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-16301-9","article-title":"Monocyte-derived exosomes upon exposure to cigarette smoke condensate alter their characteristics and show protective effect against cytotoxicity and HIV-1 replication","volume":"7","author":"Haque","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rao, P., Ande, A., Sinha, N., Kumar, A., and Kumar, S. (2016). Effects of Cigarette Smoke Condensate on Oxidative Stress, Apoptotic Cell Death, and HIV Replication in Human Monocytic Cells. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0155791"},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1080\/00952990.2016.1191505","article-title":"Marijuana use and viral suppression in persons receiving medical care for HIV-infection","volume":"43","author":"Okafor","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Drug Alcohol Abus."},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1996","DOI":"10.1007\/s10461-017-1716-7","article-title":"Daily Marijuana Use is Associated with Missed Clinic Appointments among HIV-Infected Persons Engaged in HIV Care","volume":"21","author":"Kipp","year":"2017","journal-title":"AIDS Behav."},{"key":"ref_187","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugpo.2017.02.009","article-title":"High-intensity cannabis use and HIV clinical outcomes among HIV-positive people who use illicit drugs in Vancouver, Canada","volume":"42","author":"Lake","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Drug Policy"},{"key":"ref_188","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1111\/dar.12223","article-title":"High-intensity cannabis use associated with lower plasma human immunodeficiency virus-1 RNA viral load among recently infected people who use injection drugs","volume":"34","author":"Milloy","year":"2015","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Rev."},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciz387","article-title":"Effect of Cannabis Use on Human Immunodeficiency Virus DNA during Suppressive Antiretroviral Therapy","volume":"70","author":"Chaillon","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"807","DOI":"10.1007\/s13311-015-0373-7","article-title":"Early Phase in the Development of Cannabidiol as a Treatment for Addiction: Opioid Relapse Takes Initial Center Stage","volume":"12","author":"Hurd","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neurotherapeutics"},{"key":"ref_191","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"780","DOI":"10.1007\/s11481-020-09918-7","article-title":"Targeting Cannabinoid Receptor 2 on Peripheral Leukocytes to Attenuate Inflammatory Mechanisms Implicated in HIV-Associated Neurocognitive Disorder","volume":"15","author":"Rizzo","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmune Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_192","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maggirwar, S.B., and Khalsa, J.H. (2021). The Link between Cannabis Use, Immune System, and Viral Infections. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13061099"},{"key":"ref_193","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1111\/jvh.12797","article-title":"Daily cannabis and reduced risk of steatosis in human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis C virus-co-infected patients (ANRS CO13-HEPAVIH)","volume":"25","author":"Nordmann","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Viral Hepat."},{"key":"ref_194","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.7326\/M20-1210","article-title":"When Epidemics Collide: Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) and the Opioid Crisis","volume":"173","author":"Becker","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_195","unstructured":"(2021, August 22). N.V. COVID-19: Potential Implications for Individuals with Substance Use Disorders: National Institute of Drug Abuse. 2020, Available online: https:\/\/www.drugabuse.gov\/about-nida\/noras-blog\/2020\/04\/covid-19-potential-implications-individuals-substance-use-disorders."},{"key":"ref_196","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1284","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2021.306256","article-title":"COVID-19 and the Drug Overdose Crisis: Uncovering the Deadliest Months in the United States, January\u2013July 2020","volume":"111","author":"Friedman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_197","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103392","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugpo.2021.103392","article-title":"Changes in characteristics of drug overdose death trends during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"98","author":"DiGennaro","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Drug Policy"},{"key":"ref_198","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2125538","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2021.25538","article-title":"Comparison of Characteristics of Deaths from Drug Overdose before vs. during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Rhode Island","volume":"4","author":"Macmadu","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_199","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"808","DOI":"10.1007\/s11524-020-00486-y","article-title":"Opioid Overdose\u2013Related Emergency Department Visits and Accidental Deaths during the COVID-19 Pandemic","volume":"97","author":"Rodda","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Urban Health"},{"key":"ref_200","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1038\/s41380-020-00880-7","article-title":"COVID-19 risk and outcomes in patients with substance use disorders: Analyses from electronic health records in the United States","volume":"26","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_201","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103088","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugpo.2020.103088","article-title":"Evidence of increased Fentanyl use during the COVID-19 pandemic among opioid agonist treatment patients in Ontario, Canada","volume":"90","author":"Morin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Drug Policy"},{"key":"ref_202","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S43","DOI":"10.1089\/pop.2020.0230","article-title":"The Opioid Epidemic within the COVID-19 Pandemic: Drug Testing in 2020","volume":"24","author":"Niles","year":"2021","journal-title":"Popul. Health Manag."},{"key":"ref_203","first-page":"470","article-title":"The Reasons for Higher Mortality Rate in Opium Addicted Patients with COVID-19: A Narrative Review","volume":"50","year":"2021","journal-title":"Iran. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_204","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/S0014-5793(02)02746-1","article-title":"Methadone induces CCR5 and promotes AIDS virus infection","volume":"519","author":"Suzuki","year":"2002","journal-title":"FEBS Lett."},{"key":"ref_205","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"869","DOI":"10.1097\/00002030-199009000-00006","article-title":"Morphine promotes the growth of HIV-1 in human peripheral blood mononuclear cell cocultures","volume":"4","author":"Peterson","year":"1990","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"ref_206","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1158","DOI":"10.1124\/jpet.103.056697","article-title":"Methylnaltrexone Antagonizes Opioid-Mediated Enhancement of HIV Infection of Human Blood Mononuclear Phagocytes","volume":"307","author":"Ho","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther."},{"key":"ref_207","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1097\/00042560-200205010-00002","article-title":"Inhibition of morphine-potentiated HIV-1 replication in peripheral blood mononuclear cells with the nuclease-resistant 2-5A agonist analog, 2-5A(N6B)","volume":"30","author":"Homan","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr."},{"key":"ref_208","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"772","DOI":"10.1189\/jlb.0305167","article-title":"Morphine inhibits CD8+ T cell-mediated, noncytolytic, anti-HIV activity in latently infected immune cells","volume":"78","author":"Wang","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Leukoc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_209","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1097\/QAI.0000000000001634","article-title":"Extended-Release Naltrexone Improves Viral Suppression among Incarcerated Persons Living with HIV with Opioid Use Disorders Transitioning to the Community: Results of a Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Randomized Trial","volume":"78","author":"Springer","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAIDS J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr."},{"key":"ref_210","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2019.02.018","article-title":"Response to direct-acting antiviral therapy among ongoing drug users and people receiving opioid substitution therapy","volume":"71","author":"Morano","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_211","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1111\/liv.14283","article-title":"Direct-acting antiviral interactions with opioids, alcohol or illicit drugs of abuse in HCV-infected patients","volume":"40","author":"Girardin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Liver Int."},{"key":"ref_212","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"674","DOI":"10.1177\/1060028015576180","article-title":"Drug interactions with direct-acting antivirals for hepatitis C: Implications for HIV and transplant patients","volume":"49","author":"Burgess","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_213","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1007\/s11904-010-0048-2","article-title":"Methadone, Buprenorphine, and Street Drug Interactions with Antiretroviral Medications","volume":"7","author":"Gruber","year":"2010","journal-title":"Curr. HIV\/AIDS Rep."},{"key":"ref_214","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2012.00388","article-title":"Epidemiological aspects and world distribution of HTLV-1 infection","volume":"3","author":"Gessain","year":"2012","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/13\/12\/2387\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:37:15Z","timestamp":1760168235000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/13\/12\/2387"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,29]]},"references-count":214,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12]]}},"alternative-id":["v13122387"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v13122387","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,29]]}}}