{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,27]],"date-time":"2026-09-27T17:32:10Z","timestamp":1790530330580,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":141,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,14]],"date-time":"2022-01-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1642118400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Ministry of Science and Higher Education of Russia","award":["075-15-2019-1661"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["075-15-2019-1661"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>So far, only two retroviruses, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) (type 1 and 2) and human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1), have been recognized as pathogenic for humans. Both viruses mainly infect CD4+ T lymphocytes. HIV replication induces the apoptosis of CD4 lymphocytes, leading to the development of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). After a long clinical latency period, HTLV-1 can transform lymphocytes, with subsequent uncontrolled proliferation and the manifestation of a disease called adult T-cell leukemia (ATLL). Certain infected patients develop neurological autoimmune disorder called HTLV-1-associated myelopathy, also known as tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM\/TSP). Both viruses are transmitted between individuals via blood transfusion, tissue\/organ transplantation, breastfeeding, and sexual intercourse. Within the host, these viruses can spread utilizing either cell-free or cell-to-cell modes of transmission. In this review, we discuss the mechanisms and importance of each mode of transmission for the biology of HIV-1 and HTLV-1.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v14010152","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,16]],"date-time":"2022-01-16T20:46:06Z","timestamp":1642365966000},"page":"152","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":66,"title":["HIV-1 and HTLV-1 Transmission Modes: Mechanisms and Importance for Virus Spread"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3629-949X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Svetlana","family":"Kalinichenko","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Cell and Gene Technology Group, Institute of Gene Biology RAS, 119334 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3431-3147","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dmitriy","family":"Komkov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Precision Genome Editing and Genetic Technologies for Biomedicine, Institute of Gene Biology RAS, 119334 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dmitriy","family":"Mazurov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Precision Genome Editing and Genetic Technologies for Biomedicine, Institute of Gene Biology RAS, 119334 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro3503","article-title":"HIV-1 capsid: The multifaceted key player in HIV-1 infection","volume":"13","author":"Campbell","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. 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