{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T09:29:53Z","timestamp":1792056593220,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":193,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,18]],"date-time":"2022-02-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1645142400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In the current context of the COVID-19 pandemic, it appears that our scientific resources and the medical community are not sufficiently developed to combat rapid viral spread all over the world. A number of viruses causing epidemics have already disseminated across the world in the last few years, such as the dengue or chinkungunya virus, the Ebola virus, and other coronavirus families such as Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS-CoV) and severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-CoV). The outbreaks of these infectious diseases have demonstrated the difficulty of treating an epidemic before the creation of vaccine. Different antiviral drugs already exist. However, several of them cause side effects or have lost their efficiency because of virus mutations. It is essential to develop new antiviral strategies, but ones that rely on more natural compounds to decrease the secondary effects. Polysaccharides, which have come to be known in recent years for their medicinal properties, including antiviral activities, are an excellent alternative. They are essential for the metabolism of plants, microorganisms, and animals, and are directly extractible. Polysaccharides have attracted more and more attention due to their therapeutic properties, low toxicity, and availability, and seem to be attractive candidates as antiviral drugs of tomorrow.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v14020426","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,21]],"date-time":"2022-02-21T08:23:29Z","timestamp":1645431809000},"page":"426","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":95,"title":["Polysaccharides and  Their Derivatives as Potential Antiviral Molecules"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Hadrien","family":"Claus-Desbonnet","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Universit\u00e9 Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, Clermont Auvergne INP, Institut Pascal, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elsa","family":"Nikly","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Universit\u00e9 Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, Clermont Auvergne INP, Institut Pascal, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vanya","family":"Nalbantova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University-Plovdiv, 4002 Plovdiv, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8721-4463","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Diana","family":"Karcheva-Bahchevanska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University-Plovdiv, 4002 Plovdiv, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1282-7868","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stanislava","family":"Ivanova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University-Plovdiv, 4002 Plovdiv, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9919-7058","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Guillaume","family":"Pierre","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Universit\u00e9 Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, Clermont Auvergne INP, Institut Pascal, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Niko","family":"Benbassat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University-Plovdiv, 4002 Plovdiv, Bulgaria"},{"name":"Department of Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University Sofia, 1000 Sofia, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9158-6208","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Plamen","family":"Katsarov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University-Plovdiv, 4002 Plovdiv, Bulgaria"},{"name":"Research Institute, Medical University-Plovdiv, 4002 Plovdiv, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6677-4549","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Philippe","family":"Michaud","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Universit\u00e9 Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, Clermont Auvergne INP, Institut Pascal, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2864-4388","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paolina","family":"Lukova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University-Plovdiv, 4002 Plovdiv, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3605-1929","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"C\u00e9dric","family":"Delattre","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Universit\u00e9 Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, Clermont Auvergne INP, Institut Pascal, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France"},{"name":"Institut Universitaire de France (IUF), 1 Rue Descartes, 75005 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mazur-Marzec, H., Ceg\u0142owska, M., Konkel, R., and Pyr\u0107, K. (2021). Antiviral Cyanometabolites\u2014A Review. Biomolecules, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom11030474"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Watson, D.G. (2011). Pharmaceutical Chemistry, International Edition E-Book, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2019.00523","article-title":"Viruses and Evolution\u2014Viruses First? A Personal Perspective","volume":"10","author":"Moelling","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1038\/nature04160","article-title":"Viruses in the Sea","volume":"437","author":"Suttle","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, S., Xu, T., Wang, C., Jia, T., and Zhang, Q. (2021). A Novel Picornavirus Discovered in White Leg Shrimp Penaeus vannamei. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13122381"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sarker, S., Bowden, T.R., and Boyle, D.B. (2022). Evidence of a Possible Viral Host Switch Event in an Avipoxvirus Isolated from an Endangered Northern Royal Albatross (Diomedea sanfordi). Viruses, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/v14020302"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stokholm, I., Fischer, N., Baechlein, C., Postel, A., Galatius, A., Kyhn, L.A., Th\u00f8stesen, C.B., Persson, S., Siebert, U., and Olsen, M.T. (2022). In the Search of Marine Pestiviruses: First Case of Phocoena pestivirus in a Belt Sea Harbour Porpoise. Viruses, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/v14010161"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, W., Zheng, X., Dai, X., Zhang, Z., Zhang, W., Xiao, T., and Huang, L. (2022). Isolation and Characterization of the First Temperate Virus Infecting Psychrobacillus from Marine Sediments. Viruses, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/v14010108"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Akashi, M., and Takemura, M. (2019). Co-Isolation and Characterization of Two Pandoraviruses and a Mimivirus from a Riverbank in Japan. Viruses, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/v11121123"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Furmaga, J., Kowalczyk, M., Furmaga, O., Rokos, C.A., Zapolski, T., Krakowski, L., Jakubczak, A., and Rudzki, S. (2022). Molecular Epidemiology and Variation of the BK Polyomavirus in the Population of Central and Eastern Europe Based on the Example of Poland. Viruses, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/v14020209"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Banyard, A.C., Lean, F.Z.X., Robinson, C., Howie, F., Tyler, G., Nisbet, C., Seekings, J., Meyer, S., Whittard, E., and Ashpitel, H.F. (2022). Detection of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Virus H5N1 Clade 2.3.4.4b in Great Skuas: A Species of Conservation Concern in Great Britain. Viruses, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/v14020212"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hanckov\u00e1, M., and Bet\u00e1kov\u00e1, T. (2021). Pandemics of the 21st Century: The Risk Factor for Obese People. Viruses, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/v14010025"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1119392","article-title":"Characterization of the Reconstructed 1918 Spanish Influenza Pandemic Virus","volume":"310","author":"Tumpey","year":"2005","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1038\/445267a","article-title":"Fatal Immunity and the 1918 Virus","volume":"445","author":"Loo","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kalinichenko, S., Komkov, D., and Mazurov, D. (2022). HIV-1 and HTLV-1 Transmission Modes: Mechanisms and Importance for Virus Spread. Viruses, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/v14010152"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alene, K.A., Wangdi, K., and Clements, A.C.A. (2020). Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Tuberculosis Control: An Overview. Trop. Med. Infect. Dis., 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed5030123"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"(2021, June 10). Timeline: Swine Flu. Nature 2009. Available online: https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/news.2009.416#appendices."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rainwater-Lovett, K., Rodriguez-Barraquer, I., and Moss, W.J. (2016). Viral Epidemiology. Viral Pathogenesis, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-800964-2.00018-5"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.1999.0420","article-title":"Beijerinck\u2019s Work on Tobacco Mosaic Virus: Historical Context and Legacy","volume":"354","author":"Bos","year":"1999","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1042\/BC20070173","article-title":"Viral Detection by Electron Microscopy: Past, Present and Future","volume":"100","author":"Roingeard","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biol. Cell"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"552","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00027-09","article-title":"Modern Uses of Electron Microscopy for Detection of Viruses","volume":"22","author":"Goldsmith","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsb.2012.10.001","article-title":"Milestones in the Discovery of Antiviral Agents: Nucleosides and Nucleotides","volume":"2","year":"2012","journal-title":"Acta Pharm. Sin. B"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.bjp.0706446","article-title":"Antiviral Prodrugs\u2014The Development of Successful Prodrug Strategies for Antiviral Chemotherapy: Antiviral Prodrugs","volume":"147","author":"Field","year":"2006","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"704","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro975","article-title":"Antivirals and Antiviral Strategies","volume":"2","author":"Clercq","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Banik, N., Yang, S.-B., Kang, T.-B., Lim, J.-H., and Park, J. (2021). Heparin and Its Derivatives: Challenges and Advances in Therapeutic Biomolecules. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms221910524"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lim, G.B. (2017). Discovery and Purification of Heparin. Nat. Rev. Cardiol., Available online: https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/nrcardio.2017.171#citeas.","DOI":"10.1038\/nrcardio.2017.171"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108326","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carres.2021.108326","article-title":"Marine Sulfated Polysaccharides as Potential Antiviral Drug Candidates to Treat Corona Virus Disease (COVID-19)","volume":"505","author":"Andrew","year":"2021","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1016\/S1572-5995(05)80038-9","article-title":"Antiviral Activities of Polysaccharides from Natural Sources","volume":"Volume 30","author":"Martinez","year":"2005","journal-title":"Studies in Natural Products Chemistry"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2018.04.056","article-title":"The Antiviral Activity of Polysaccharides and Their Derivatives","volume":"115","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meyer, H., Ehmann, R., and Smith, G.L. (2020). Smallpox in the Post-Eradication Era. Viruses, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/v12020138"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.3121\/cmr.1.2.87","article-title":"Smallpox Vaccine: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly","volume":"1","author":"Belongia","year":"2003","journal-title":"Clin. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205873842110026","DOI":"10.1177\/20587384211002621","article-title":"A Review: Mechanism of Action of Antiviral Drugs","volume":"35","author":"Kausar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Immunopathol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2007.12.007","article-title":"Highly Pathogenic RNA Viral Infections: Challenges for Antiviral Research","volume":"78","author":"Bray","year":"2008","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"e3125","article-title":"Analysis of DNA Exchange Using Thymidine Analogs (ADExTA) in Trypanosoma Cruzi","volume":"8","author":"Marin","year":"2018","journal-title":"BIO-Protocol"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-3002(59)90597-9","article-title":"Synthesis and Biological Activities of Iododeoxyuridine, an Analog of Thymidine","volume":"32","author":"Prusoff","year":"1959","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.67.4.305","article-title":"Studies on the Chemotherapy of Vaccinia Virus. II. The Activity of Some Thiosemicarbazones","volume":"67","author":"Hamre","year":"1951","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.3181\/00379727-73-17652","article-title":"Activity of P-Aminobenzaldehyde, 3-Thiosemicarbazone on Vaccinia Virus in the Chick Embryo and in the Mouse","volume":"73","author":"Hamre","year":"1950","journal-title":"Exp. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"494","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(63)90230-7","article-title":"Prophylactic treatment of small pox contacts with n-methylisatin beta-thiosemicarbazone (compound 33t57, marboran)","volume":"2","author":"Bauer","year":"1963","journal-title":"Lancet Lond. Engl."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5716","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.74.12.5716","article-title":"Selectivity of Action of an Antiherpetic Agent, 9-(2-Hydroxyethoxymethyl)Guanine","volume":"74","author":"Elion","year":"1977","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11447","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(19)68420-6","article-title":"Inhibition of Purified Human and Herpes Simplex Virus-Induced DNA Polymerases by 9-(2-Hydroxyethoxymethyl)Guanine Triphosphate. Effects on Primer-Template Function","volume":"256","author":"Derse","year":"1981","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-3527(09)73001-5","article-title":"Looking Back in 2009 at the Dawning of Antiviral Therapy Now 50 Years Ago","volume":"Volume 73","author":"Clercq","year":"2009","journal-title":"Advances in Virus Research"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.14.2.327-335.2001","article-title":"Global Impact of Human Immunodeficiency Virus and AIDS","volume":"14","author":"Gayle","year":"2001","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1016\/S1359-6446(01)01712-3","article-title":"Screening for Human ADME\/Tox Drug Properties in Drug Discovery","volume":"6","author":"Li","year":"2001","journal-title":"Drug Discov. Today"},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"37","article-title":"Sida Dans Les Pays En D\u00e9veloppement","volume":"40","author":"Vidal","year":"2002","journal-title":"Actual. Doss. St. Publique"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dolin, R., and Morgan, J. (2015). Antiviral Agents: General Principles. Mandell, Douglas, and Bensnett\u2019s Principles and Practice of Infec-Tious Diseases, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-1-4557-4801-3.00043-6"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Popping, S., Cento, V., Seguin-Devaux, C., Boucher, C., de Salazar, A., Heger, E., Mor, O., Sayan, M., Salmon-Ceron, D., and Weis, N. (2021). The European Prevalence of Resistance Associated Substitutions among Direct Acting Antiviral Failures. Viruses, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/v14010016"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Colpitts, C., and Baumert, T. (2016). Addressing the Challenges of Hepatitis C Virus Resistance and Treatment Failure. Viruses, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/v8080226"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1016\/j.idc.2010.01.001","article-title":"Antiviral Drug Resistance: Mechanisms and Clinical Implications","volume":"24","author":"Strasfeld","year":"2010","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"1007","article-title":"O\u00f9 en est la recherche sur les antiviraux?","volume":"66","author":"Agut","year":"2016","journal-title":"Rev. Prat."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salvaggio, M.R., and Gnann, J.W. (2017). Drugs for Herpesvirus Infections. Infectious Diseases, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-7020-6285-8.00153-2"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1038\/nrd703","article-title":"Strategies in the Design of Antiviral Drugs","volume":"1","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Drug Discov."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Passman, A.M., Strauss, R.P., McSpadden, S.B., Finch-Edmondson, M., Andrewartha, N., Woo, K.H., Diepeveen, L.A., Zhao, W., Fern\u00e1ndez-Irigoyen, J., and Santamar\u00eda, E. (2021). Maraviroc Prevents HCC Development by Suppressing Macrophages and the Liver Progenitor Cell Response in a Murine Chronic Liver Disease Model. Cancers, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers13194935"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2175","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa035026","article-title":"Enfuvirtide, an HIV-1 Fusion Inhibitor, for Drug-Resistant HIV Infection in North and South America","volume":"348","author":"Lalezari","year":"2003","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"923","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01863-12","article-title":"HIV-1 Resistance to Maraviroc Conferred by a CD4 Binding Site Mutation in the Envelope Glycoprotein Gp120","volume":"87","author":"Ratcliff","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkh330","article-title":"Resistance to Enfuvirtide, the First HIV Fusion Inhibitor","volume":"54","author":"Greenberg","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1177\/095632020001100401","article-title":"Polyanions\u2014A Lost Chance in the Fight against HIV and Other Virus Diseases?","volume":"11","year":"2000","journal-title":"Antivir. Chem. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, Y., Gammeltoft, K.A., Galli, A., Offersgaard, A., Fahn\u00f8e, U., Ramirez, S., Bukh, J., and Gottwein, J.M. (2021). Efficacy of Ion-Channel Inhibitors Amantadine, Memantine and Rimantadine for the Treatment of SARS-CoV-2 In Vitro. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13102082"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.podrm.2017.12.001","article-title":"Ganciclovir","volume":"Volume 43","author":"Ajarim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Profiles of Drug Substances, Excipients and Related Methodology"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4118","DOI":"10.2174\/0929867325666180309105519","article-title":"Acyclovir in the Treatment of Herpes Viruses\u2014A Review","volume":"27","author":"Pietraszek","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Li, G., Wang, Y., and De Clercq, E. (2021). Approved HIV Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors in the Past Decade. Acta Pharm. Sin. B, S2211383521004433."},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"176","article-title":"Spectrum of Antiviral Activity and Mechanism of Action of Zidovudine. An Overview","volume":"85","author":"Furman","year":"1988","journal-title":"Am. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1007\/s40262-019-00830-9","article-title":"Clinical Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Etravirine: An Updated Review","volume":"59","author":"Havens","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Pharmacokinet."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.2165\/00128072-200002050-00005","article-title":"Nevirapine: A Review of Its Use in the Prevention and Treatment of Paediatric HIV Infection","volume":"2","author":"Perry","year":"2000","journal-title":"Paediatr. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"153","article-title":"The Role of Non-Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors (NNRTIs) in the Therapy of HIV-1 Infection","volume":"38","year":"1998","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1781","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1309533","article-title":"Letermovir for Cytomegalovirus Prophylaxis in Hematopoietic-Cell Transplantation","volume":"370","author":"Chemaly","year":"2014","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-79086-0_4","article-title":"Viral Protease Inhibitors","volume":"Volume 189","author":"Bartenschlager","year":"2009","journal-title":"Antiviral Strategies"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1281","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199804303381808","article-title":"HIV-Protease Inhibitors","volume":"338","author":"Flexner","year":"1998","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1002\/prot.340140302","article-title":"The Structure of the Complex between Influenza Virus Neuraminidase and Sialic Acid, the Viral Receptor","volume":"14","author":"Varghese","year":"1992","journal-title":"Proteins Struct. Funct. Genet."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1363","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra050740","article-title":"Neuraminidase Inhibitors for Influenza","volume":"353","author":"Moscona","year":"2005","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.16.4.569-596.2003","article-title":"Clinical Potential of the Acyclic Nucleoside Phosphonates Cidofovir, Adefovir, and Tenofovir in Treatment of DNA Virus and Retrovirus Infections","volume":"16","year":"2003","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"880","DOI":"10.3390\/v2040880","article-title":"HIV-1 RT Inhibitors with a Novel Mechanism of Action: NNRTIs That Compete with the Nucleotide Substrate","volume":"2","author":"Maga","year":"2010","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"Eggleton, J.S., and Nagalli, S. (2020). Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy (HAART), StatPearls Publishing."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2017.12.009","article-title":"Biological Activities and Pharmaceutical Applications of Polysaccharide from Natural Resources: A Review","volume":"183","author":"Yu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1753","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2021.05.139","article-title":"Classification, Structure and Mechanism of Antiviral Polysaccharides Derived from Edible and Medicinal Fungus","volume":"183","author":"Guo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2795","DOI":"10.3390\/md10122795","article-title":"The Antiviral Activities and Mechanisms of Marine Polysaccharides: An Overview","volume":"10","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mar. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1016\/S0306-3623(96)00563-0","article-title":"Sulfated Polysaccharides Extracted from Sea Algae as Potential Antiviral Drugs","volume":"29","author":"Witvrouw","year":"1997","journal-title":"Gen. Pharmacol. Vasc. Syst."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Halpern, V., Ogunsola, F., Obunge, O., Wang, C.-H., Onyejepu, N., Oduyebo, O., Taylor, D., McNeil, L., Mehta, N., and Umo-Otong, J. (2008). Effectiveness of Cellulose Sulfate Vaginal Gel for the Prevention of HIV Infection: Results of a Phase III Trial in Nigeria. PLoS ONE, 3.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0003784"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1038\/s41421-020-00192-8","article-title":"Sulfated Polysaccharides Effectively Inhibit SARS-CoV-2 in Vitro","volume":"6","author":"Kwon","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Discov."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6822(92)90680-N","article-title":"Sulfated Polymers Inhibit the Interaction of Human Cytomegalovirus with Cell Surface Heparan Sulfate","volume":"189","author":"Neyts","year":"1992","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tandon, R., Sharp, J.S., Zhang, F., Pomin, V.H., Ashpole, N.M., Mitra, D., McCandless, M.G., Jin, W., Liu, H., and Sharma, P. (2021). Effective Inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 Entry by Heparin and Enoxaparin Derivatives. J. Virol., 95.","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01987-20"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"621","DOI":"10.1089\/aid.2012.0156","article-title":"Inhibitory Effect of Chondroitin Sulfate Type E on the Binding Step of Human T-Cell Leukemia Virus Type 1","volume":"29","author":"Tanaka","year":"2013","journal-title":"AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7415","DOI":"10.1039\/D0FO02017F","article-title":"Inhibitory Activities of Marine Sulfated Polysaccharides against SARS-CoV-2","volume":"11","author":"Song","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32193","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M503645200","article-title":"Chondroitin Sulfate Characterized by the E-Disaccharide Unit Is a Potent Inhibitor of Herpes Simplex Virus Infectivity and Provides the Virus Binding Sites on Gro2C Cells","volume":"280","author":"Bergefall","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2010.09.002","article-title":"Antiviral Activity of Chondroitin Sulphate E Targeting Dengue Virus Envelope Protein","volume":"88","author":"Kato","year":"2010","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_85","first-page":"224","article-title":"Effect of the molecular weight of chitosan on its antiviral activity in plants","volume":"42","author":"Kulikov","year":"2006","journal-title":"Prikl. Biokhim. Mikrobiol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2021.04.157","article-title":"Chitin and Chitosan as Tools to Combat COVID-19: A Triple Approach","volume":"183","author":"Safarzadeh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"597","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2016.03.022","article-title":"Anti-Tumor and Anti-Virus Activity of Polysaccharides Extracted from Sipunculus Nudus (SNP) on Hepg2.2.15","volume":"87","author":"Su","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"514","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02975155","article-title":"Virus-Cell Fusion Inhibitory Activity for the Polysaccharides from Various Korean Edible Clams","volume":"24","author":"Woo","year":"2001","journal-title":"Arch. Pharm. Res."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2008.03.006","article-title":"Inhibition of Reverse Transcriptase Activity of HIV by Polysaccharides of Brown Algae","volume":"62","author":"Queiroz","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1177\/095632020701800305","article-title":"Structural Features and Antiviral Activity of Sulphated Fucans from the Brown Seaweed Cystoseira indica","volume":"18","author":"Mandal","year":"2007","journal-title":"Antivir. Chem. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2474","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phytochem.2006.05.024","article-title":"Structure and Antiviral Activity of Sulfated Fucans from Stoechospermum marginatum","volume":"67","author":"Adhikari","year":"2006","journal-title":"Phytochemistry"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"825203","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/825203","article-title":"Antiviral Potential of Algae Polysaccharides Isolated from Marine Sources: A Review","volume":"2015","author":"Ahmadi","year":"2015","journal-title":"BioMed Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1016\/S0144-8617(98)00119-2","article-title":"Antiviral Activity of Alginate against Infection by Tobacco Mosaic Virus","volume":"38","author":"Sano","year":"1999","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1471-4159.2006.03698.x","article-title":"Sulfated Polymannuroguluronate, a Novel Anti-Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome Drug Candidate, Blocks Neuroinflammatory Signalling by Targeting the Transactivator of Transcription (Tat) Protein: Characterization of the Binding Mode of SPMG and Tat","volume":"97","author":"Hui","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Neurochem."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Buck, C.B., Thompson, C.D., Roberts, J.N., M\u00fcller, M., Lowy, D.R., and Schiller, J.T. (2006). Carrageenan Is a Potent Inhibitor of Papillomavirus Infection. PLoS Pathog., 2.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.0020069"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2007.01.043","article-title":"Interference in Dengue Virus Adsorption and Uncoating by Carrageenans","volume":"363","author":"Talarico","year":"2007","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100826","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cegh.2021.100826","article-title":"The Antiviral Activity of Iota-, Kappa-, and Lambda-Carrageenan against COVID-19: A Critical Review","volume":"12","author":"Frediansyah","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Epidemiol. Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morokutti-Kurz, M., Fr\u00f6ba, M., Graf, P., Gro\u00dfe, M., Grassauer, A., Auth, J., Schubert, U., and Prieschl-Grassauer, E. (2021). Iota-Carrageenan Neutralizes SARS-CoV-2 and Inhibits Viral Replication in Vitro. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0237480"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e601","DOI":"10.1097\/MJT.0000000000001433","article-title":"Intensive Treatment with Ivermectin and Iota-Carrageenan as Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis for COVID-19 in Health Care Workers from Tucuman, Argentina","volume":"28","author":"Chahla","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Ther."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.2217\/fmb-2020-0286","article-title":"Review of the Use of Nasal and Oral Antiseptics during a Global Pandemic","volume":"16","author":"Stathis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Future Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L750","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.00552.2020","article-title":"Carrageenan-Containing over-the-Counter Nasal and Oral Sprays Inhibit SARS-CoV-2 Infection of Airway Epithelial Cultures","volume":"320","author":"Conzelmann","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2004.07.001","article-title":"Protective Effect of a Natural Carrageenan on Genital Herpes Simplex Virus Infection in Mice","volume":"64","author":"Carlucci","year":"2004","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_103","first-page":"360","article-title":"Influence of kappa\/beta-carrageenan from red alga Tichocarpus crinitus on development of local infection induced by tobacco mosaic virus in Xanthi-nc tobacco leaves","volume":"3","author":"Nagorskaia","year":"2008","journal-title":"Izv. Akad. Nauk. Ser. Biol."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fsi.2020.02.054","article-title":"Effects of the Sulfated Polysaccharide Ulvan from Ulva Ohnoi on the Modulation of the Immune Response in Senegalese Sole (Solea senegalensis)","volume":"100","author":"Ponce","year":"2020","journal-title":"Fish Shellfish. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12398","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.12398","article-title":"Fighting SARS-CoV-2 with Green Seaweed Ulva Sp. Extract: Extraction Protocol Predetermines Crude Ulvan Extract Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Inhibition Properties in in Vitro Vero-E6 Cells Assay","volume":"9","author":"Shefer","year":"2021","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2020.04.187","article-title":"Ulvan Lyase Assisted Structural Characterization of Ulvan from Ulva pertusa and Its Antiviral Activity against Vesicular Stomatitis Virus","volume":"157","author":"Chi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100623","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biteb.2020.100623","article-title":"Antiviral Activity of Sulfated Polysaccharides from Marine Algae and Its Application in Combating COVID-19: Mini Review","volume":"13","author":"Hans","year":"2021","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"468","DOI":"10.1007\/s10126-011-9428-x","article-title":"Inhibition of Japanese Encephalitis Virus Infection by the Sulfated Polysaccharide Extracts from Ulva lactuca","volume":"14","author":"Chiu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mar. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2135","DOI":"10.1248\/bpb.29.2135","article-title":"Antiviral Sulfated Polysaccharide from Navicula Directa, a Diatom Collected from Deep-Sea Water in Toyama Bay","volume":"29","author":"Lee","year":"2006","journal-title":"Biol. Pharm. Bull."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2011.12.006","article-title":"In Vitro Inhibition of Influenza a Virus Infection by Marine Microalga-Derived Sulfated Polysaccharide p-KG03","volume":"93","author":"Kim","year":"2012","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1016\/0141-8130(95)98157-T","article-title":"In Vitro Antiviral Activities of Sulfated Polysaccharides from a Marine Microalga (Cochlodinium polykrikoides) against Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Other Enveloped Viruses","volume":"17","author":"Hasui","year":"1995","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1007\/s10126-003-0002-z","article-title":"Antiviral Effects of Sulfated Exopolysaccharide from the Marine Microalga Gyrodinium impudicum Strain KG03","volume":"6","author":"Yim","year":"2004","journal-title":"Mar. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jabeen, M., Dutot, M., Fagon, R., Verrier, B., and Monge, C. (2021). Seaweed Sulfated Polysaccharides against Respiratory Viral Infections. Pharmaceutics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics13050733"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2013.03.012","article-title":"Antiviral Activity of Sulfated Chuanminshen violaceum Polysaccharide against Duck Enteritis Virus in Vitro","volume":"98","author":"Song","year":"2013","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ray, B., Ali, I., Jana, S., Mukherjee, S., Pal, S., Ray, S., Sch\u00fctz, M., and Marschall, M. (2021). Antiviral Strategies Using Natural Source-Derived Sulfated Polysaccharides in the Light of the COVID-19 Pandemic and Major Human Pathogenic Viruses. Viruses, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/v14010035"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2014.04.013","article-title":"Characterization and Biological Effects of Two Polysaccharides Isolated from Acanthopanax sciadophylloides","volume":"116","author":"Lee","year":"2015","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2044","DOI":"10.1021\/bm100397p","article-title":"Pectic Polysaccharides from Panax ginseng as the Antirotavirus principals in Ginseng","volume":"11","author":"Baek","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biomacromolecules"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"825","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2042-7158.2011.01274.x","article-title":"Isolation of a Polysaccharide with Antiproliferative, Hypoglycemic, Antioxidant and HIV-1 Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitory Activities from the Fruiting Bodies of the Abalone Mushroom Pleurotus abalonus","volume":"63","author":"Wang","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2018.04.132","article-title":"Structural Characterization and Antiviral Activity of Lentinan from Lentinus Edodes Mycelia against Infectious Hematopoietic Necrosis Virus","volume":"115","author":"Ren","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10194","DOI":"10.1021\/jf0721287","article-title":"In Vivo Anti-Influenza Virus Activity of an Immunomodulatory Acidic Polysaccharide Isolated from Cordyceps militaris Grown on Germinated Soybeans","volume":"55","author":"Ohta","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1038\/ja.2014.120","article-title":"Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry Characterization of Five New Leucinostatins Produced by Paecilomyces lilacinus CG\u2014189","volume":"68","author":"Martinez","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Antibiot."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2015.07.027","article-title":"Calcium Spirulan Derived from Spirulina platensis Inhibits Herpes Simplex Virus 1 Attachment to Human Keratinocytes and Protects against Herpes Labialis","volume":"137","author":"Mader","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1021\/np960017o","article-title":"Calcium Spirulan, an Inhibitor of Enveloped Virus Replication, from a Blue-Green Alga Spirulina platensis","volume":"59","author":"Hayashi","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Nat. Prod."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1573","DOI":"10.1248\/bpb.30.1573","article-title":"Anti-Herpes Simplex Virus Target of an Acidic Polysaccharide, Nostoflan, from the Edible Blue-Green Alga Nostoc flagelliforme","volume":"30","author":"Kanekiyo","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biol. Pharm. Bull."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1037","DOI":"10.1021\/np050056c","article-title":"Isolation of an Antiviral Polysaccharide, Nostoflan, from a Terrestrial Cyanobacterium, Nostocf lagelliforme","volume":"68","author":"Kanekiyo","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Nat. Prod."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6974","DOI":"10.1021\/bi00188a029","article-title":"Anti-HIV-1 Activity of Chemically Modified Heparins: Correlation between Binding to the V3 Loop of Gp120 and Inhibition of Cellular HIV-1 Infection in Vitro","volume":"33","author":"Rider","year":"1994","journal-title":"Biochemistry"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104873","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2020.104873","article-title":"Characterization of Heparin and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome-Related Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) Spike Glycoprotein Binding Interactions","volume":"181","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fenice, M., and Gorrasi, S. (2021). Advances in Chitin and Chitosan Science. Molecules, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26061805"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Souza, A.F., Galindo, H.M., de Lima, M.A.B., Ribeaux, D.R., Rodr\u00edguez, D.M., da Silva Andrade, R.F., Gusm\u00e3o, N.B., and de Campos-Takaki, G.M. (2020). Biotechnological Strategies for Chitosan Production by Mucoralean Strains and Dimorphism Using Renewable Substrates. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21124286"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mania, S., Partyka, K., Pilch, J., Augustin, E., Cie\u015blik, M., Ryl, J., Jinn, J.-R., Wang, Y.-J., Micha\u0142owska, A., and Tylingo, R. (2019). Obtaining and Characterization of the PLA\/Chitosan Foams with Antimicrobial Properties Achieved by the Emulsification Combined with the Dissolution of Chitosan by CO2 Saturation. Molecules, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules24244532"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zheng, W., Zhou, L., Lin, L., Cai, Y., Sun, H., Zhao, L., Gao, N., Yin, R., and Zhao, J. (2019). Physicochemical Characteristics and Anticoagulant Activities of the Polysaccharides from Sea Cucumber Pattalus mollis. Mar. Drugs, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/md17040198"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2577","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-015-2517-9","article-title":"Efficacy of Scallop Shell Powders and Slaked Lime for Inactivating Avian Influenza Virus under Harsh Conditions","volume":"160","author":"Thammakarn","year":"2015","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tang, F., Huang, G., Lin, L., Yin, H., Shao, L., Xu, R., and Cui, X. (2021). Anti-HBV Activities of Polysaccharides from Thais clavigera (K\u00fcster) by In Vitro and In Vivo Study. Mar. Drugs, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/md19040195"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2867-13-55","article-title":"Marine Algal Natural Products with Anti-Oxidative, Anti-Inflammatory, and Anti-Cancer Properties","volume":"13","author":"Lee","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cancer Cell Int."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1573","DOI":"10.1093\/jxb\/38.9.1573","article-title":"Isolation and Analysis of the Cell Walls of Brown Algae: Fucus spiralis, F. Ceranoides, F. Vesiculosus, F. Serratus, Bifurcaria bifurcata and Laminaria digitata","volume":"38","author":"Mabeau","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Exp. Bot."},{"key":"ref_136","first-page":"15","article-title":"Study on the Mechanism of Inhibitory Action of 911 on Replication of HIV-1 in Vitro","volume":"19","author":"Xin","year":"2000","journal-title":"Chin. J. Mar. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_137","unstructured":"Muto, S., Niimura, K., Oohara, M., Oguchi, Y., Matsunaga, K., Hirose, K., Kakuchi, J., Sugita, N., Furusho, T., and Yoshikumi, C. (1992). Polysaccharides and Antiviral Drugs Containing the Same as Active Ingredient. (5,089,481), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1671","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules13081671","article-title":"Fucoidan: Structure and Bioactivity","volume":"13","author":"Li","year":"2008","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Krylova, N.V., Ermakova, S.P., Lavrov, V.F., Leneva, I.A., Kompanets, G.G., Iunikhina, O.V., Nosik, M.N., Ebralidze, L.K., Falynskova, I.N., and Silchenko, A.S. (2020). The Comparative Analysis of Antiviral Activity of Native and Modified Fucoidans from Brown Algae Fucus evanescens In Vitro and In Vivo. Mar. Drugs, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/md18040224"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1765","DOI":"10.1021\/bm061185q","article-title":"Structure and Functional Properties of Ulvan, a Polysaccharide from Green Seaweeds","volume":"8","author":"Lahaye","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biomacromolecules"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procbio.2018.06.009","article-title":"Microbial Exopolysaccharides: Resources and Bioactive Properties","volume":"72","author":"Yildiz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Process Biochem."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"821","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-80896-9","article-title":"Antiviral Activity of Lambda-Carrageenan against Influenza Viruses and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2","volume":"11","author":"Jang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.3892\/etm.2020.9452","article-title":"Astragalus Polysaccharide Enhances the Immune Function of RAW264.7 Macrophages via the NF-\u03baB P65\/MAPK Signaling Pathway","volume":"21","author":"Feng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Exp. Ther. Med."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1049","DOI":"10.1007\/s10499-021-00675-9","article-title":"Antiviral Activity of Sulfated Polysaccharides from Sargassum ilicifolium against Fish Betanodavirus Infection","volume":"29","author":"Vijayakumar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Aquac. Int."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111843","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2021.111843","article-title":"Salvia Plebeia, R. Br. Polysaccharides (SPP) against RSV (Respiratory Syncytial Virus) Infection: Antiviral Effect and Mechanisms of Action","volume":"141","author":"Liang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_146","first-page":"412","article-title":"Protective effect of Asarum polysaccharide on H1N1 influenza virus infection and expression of inflammatory factors","volume":"46","author":"Yang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi Zhongguo Zhongyao Zazhi China J. Chin. Mater. Medica"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112782","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2020.112782","article-title":"Antiviral Activity of a Polysaccharide from Radix Isatidis (Isatis 998 Indigotica Fortune) against Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) in Vitro via Activation of JAK\/STAT Signal Pathway","volume":"15","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_148","first-page":"224","article-title":"Antiviral Activity of Total 1001 Polysaccharide Fraction of Water and Ethanol Extracts of Pleurotus pulmonarius against the Influenza A Virus","volume":"10","author":"Ilyicheva","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Fungal Biol."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imlet.2009.03.001","article-title":"An Exopolysaccharide Produced by Geobacillus thermodenitrificans Strain B3-72: Antiviral Activity on Immunocompetent Cells","volume":"123","author":"Arena","year":"2009","journal-title":"Immunol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1021\/np990348b","article-title":"Structural Analysis of Calcium Spirulan (Ca\u2212SP)-Derived Oligosaccharides Using Electrospray Ionization Mass Spectrometry","volume":"63","author":"Lee","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Nat. Prod."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2006.06.004","article-title":"Antiviral Activity of Arthrospira-Derived Spirulan-like Substances","volume":"72","author":"Rechter","year":"2006","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"552","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2018.08.034","article-title":"Structural Characterization of a Bioactive Water-Soluble Heteropolysaccharide from Nostoc Sphaeroids K\u00fctz","volume":"200","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1543","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.65.3.1543-1550.1991","article-title":"Dextran Sulfate Blocks Antibody Binding to the Principal Neutralizing Domain of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 without Interfering with Gp120-CD4 Interactions","volume":"65","author":"Callahan","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-2952(95)00193-4","article-title":"Differential Antiviral Activity of Derivatized Dextrans","volume":"50","author":"Neyts","year":"1995","journal-title":"Biochem. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2015.02.020","article-title":"Dextrans Produced by Lactic Acid Bacteria Exhibit Antiviral and Immunomodulatory Activity against Salmonid Viruses","volume":"124","author":"Ballesteros","year":"2015","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5774","DOI":"10.1021\/bi800205t","article-title":"Using a 3-O-Sulfated Heparin Octasaccharide to Inhibit the Entry of Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1","volume":"47","author":"Copeland","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biochemistry"},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2011.07.009","article-title":"Antiherpetic Activity of a Sulfated Polysaccharide from Agaricus brasiliensis Mycelia","volume":"92","author":"Camelini","year":"2011","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"975","DOI":"10.1002\/ptr.3368","article-title":"In Vitro Anti-Herpes Simplex Virus Activity of 1,2,4,6-Tetra-O-Galloyl-\u03b2- d -Glucose from Phyllanthus emblica L. (Euphorbiaceae): In vitro anti-herpes simplex virus activity of 1246TGG from P. emblica","volume":"25","author":"Xiang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Phytother. Res."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1254","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2012.06.060","article-title":"In Vitro Antiviral Activity of Sulfated Auricularia auricula Polysaccharides","volume":"90","author":"Nguyen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2011.03.010","article-title":"Optimization of Sulfated Modification Conditions of Tremella Polysaccharide and Effects of Modifiers on Cellular Infectivity of NDV","volume":"49","author":"Zhao","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2013.05.015","article-title":"Sulfated Polysaccharide of Caesalpinia ferrea Inhibits Herpes Simplex Virus and Poliovirus","volume":"60","author":"Lopes","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2014.12.030","article-title":"Antiviral Effect of Sulfated Chuanmingshen violaceum Polysaccharide in Chickens Infected with Virulent Newcastle Disease Virus","volume":"476","author":"Song","year":"2015","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2193","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phytochem.2008.05.004","article-title":"Anti-Herpetic Activity of a Sulfated Xylomannan from Scinaia hatei","volume":"69","author":"Mandal","year":"2008","journal-title":"Phytochemistry"},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-291X(91)91443-G","article-title":"N-Carboxymethylchitosan-N,O-Sulfate as an Anti-HIV-1 Agent","volume":"174","author":"Sosa","year":"1991","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"880","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2012.01.108","article-title":"Preparation and Anti-Influenza A Virus Activity of \u03ba-Carrageenan Oligosaccharide and Its Sulphated Derivatives","volume":"133","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2016.10.002","article-title":"Phosphorylated Codonopsis pilosula Polysaccharide Could Inhibit the Virulence of Duck Hepatitis A Virus Compared with Codonopsis pilosula Polysaccharide","volume":"94","author":"Ming","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"813","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2017.04.093","article-title":"Effects of Chrysanthemum indicum Polysaccharide and Its Phosphate on Anti-Duck Hepatitis a Virus and Alleviating Hepatic Injury","volume":"102","author":"Ming","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2017.02.085","article-title":"Antiviral Activity of Phosphorylated Radix Cyathulae officinalis Polysaccharide against Canine Parvovirus in Vitro","volume":"99","author":"Feng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3279","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.molpharmaceut.6b00568","article-title":"Zinc-Stabilized Chitosan-Chondroitin Sulfate Nanocomplexes for HIV-1 Infection Inhibition Application","volume":"13","author":"Wu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"656","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carres.2009.12.017","article-title":"Anti-HIV-1 Activity of Low Molecular Weight Sulfated Chitooligosaccharides","volume":"345","author":"Artan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Res."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/S0144-8617(99)00083-1","article-title":"Preparation of O-Acylated Low-Molecular-Weight Carrageenans with Potent Anti-HIV Activity and Low Anticoagulant Effect","volume":"41","author":"Yamada","year":"2000","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_172","first-page":"S527","article-title":"Chitosan Derivatives as HIV-1 Inhibitors","volume":"136S","author":"Artan","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5105","DOI":"10.1021\/bi00694a013","article-title":"Human Brain and Placental Choline Acetyltransferase: Purification and Properties","volume":"14","author":"Roskoski","year":"1975","journal-title":"Biochemistry"},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"975","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bmcl.2009.12.049","article-title":"Synergistic Effects between Aminoethyl-Chitosans and \u03b2-Lactams against Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)","volume":"20","author":"Lee","year":"2010","journal-title":"Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett."},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2017.12.067","article-title":"Chitooligosaccharides and Their Biological Activities: A Comprehensive Review","volume":"184","author":"Liaqat","year":"2018","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2399","DOI":"10.2174\/0929867043364504","article-title":"Sulfated Seaweed Polysaccharides as Antiviral Agents","volume":"11","author":"Damonte","year":"2004","journal-title":"Curr. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.1093\/glycob\/cwi031","article-title":"Multiple and Multivalent Interactions of Novel Anti-AIDS Drug Candidates, Sulfated Polymannuronate (SPMG)-Derived Oligosaccharides, with Gp120 and Their Anti-HIV Activities","volume":"15","author":"Liu","year":"2005","journal-title":"Glycobiology"},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1093\/glycob\/cwn092","article-title":"Focus on Antivirally Active Sulfated Polysaccharides: From Structure\u2013Activity Analysis to Clinical Evaluation","volume":"19","author":"Ghosh","year":"2009","journal-title":"Glycobiology"},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1565","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.75.3.1565-1570.2001","article-title":"Human Papillomavirus Infection Requires Cell Surface Heparan Sulfate","volume":"75","author":"Giroglou","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.5539\/ijb.v3n1p74","article-title":"Bio-Function Summary of Marine Oligosaccharides","volume":"3","author":"Ji","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol."},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1177\/095632029100200307","article-title":"Antiviral Activity of Low-MW Dextran Sulphate (Derived from Dextran MW 1000) Compared to Dextran Sulphate Samples of Higher MW","volume":"2","author":"Witvrouw","year":"1991","journal-title":"Antivir. Chem. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_182","first-page":"83","article-title":"Isolation of a Polysaccharide with Antiviral Effect 927 from Ulva Lactuca","volume":"24","author":"Ivanova","year":"1994","journal-title":"Prep. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_183","first-page":"111","article-title":"The Depressive Effect of Glycosaminoglycan from Scallop on Type-I Herpes Simplex Virus","volume":"2","author":"Yu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Acta Acad. Med. Qingdao Univ."},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"968","DOI":"10.3390\/md8040968","article-title":"Chitosan in Plant Protection","volume":"8","author":"Adam","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mar. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_185","first-page":"113","article-title":"Chitosan Antiviral 1075 Activity: Dependence on Structure and Depolymerization Method","volume":"47","author":"Davydova","year":"2011","journal-title":"Prikl. Biokhim. Mikrobiol."},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.10174","article-title":"Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 Variants Arising after Selection with an Antiviral Carrageenan: Lack of Correlation between Drug Susceptibility and Syn Phenotype","volume":"68","author":"Carlucci","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_187","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2590","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmb.2018.06.024","article-title":"Virus\u2013Receptor Interactions: The Key to Cellular Invasion","volume":"430","author":"Maginnis","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_188","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-422X-5-107","article-title":"Iota-Carrageenan Is a Potent Inhibitor of Rhinovirus Infection","volume":"5","author":"Grassauer","year":"2008","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2020.07.106","article-title":"Application Prospect of Polysaccharides in the Development of Anti-Novel Coronavirus Drugs and Vaccines","volume":"164","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.3851\/IMP3295","article-title":"Inhibitory Effect of Iota-Carrageenan on Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome Virus in Vitro","volume":"24","author":"Guo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Antivir. Ther."},{"key":"ref_191","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1388","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.31.9.1388","article-title":"Polysaccharides as Antiviral Agents: Antiviral Activity of Carrageenan","volume":"31","author":"Carrasco","year":"1987","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_192","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1332","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.028522-0","article-title":"Differential Inhibition of Dengue Virus Infection in Mammalian and Mosquito Cells by Iota-Carrageenan","volume":"92","author":"Talarico","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_193","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2011.08.010","article-title":"In Vitro Inhibitory Effect of Carrageenan Oligosaccharide on Influenza A H1N1 Virus","volume":"92","author":"Wang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/14\/2\/426\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:22:40Z","timestamp":1760134960000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/14\/2\/426"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,18]]},"references-count":193,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2]]}},"alternative-id":["v14020426"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v14020426","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,18]]}}}