{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,30]],"date-time":"2026-10-30T23:13:58Z","timestamp":1793402038773,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":60,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,20]],"date-time":"2022-04-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1650412800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001659","name":"Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["n\/a"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["n\/a"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001659","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Publication Funds of the University of Heidelberg","award":["n\/a"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["n\/a"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Various symptoms have been associated with COVID-19, but little is known about the impacts of COVID-19 on the sensory system, risk factors, and the duration of symptoms. This study assesses olfactory, gustatory, hearing, and vestibular systems after COVID-19. Methods: This cross-sectional, single-center study involved 50 patients one to six months after COVID-19 and reports their patient records and the extent, onset, and duration of olfactory, gustatory, hearing, and balance disorders using questionnaires during and after COVID-19. Sensory symptoms were objectively studied using the following clinical tests after COVID-19 Sniffin\u2019 Sticks, taste tests, tone\/speech audiometry, and video head impulse test. Results: Post-COVID-19-patients were suffering from olfactory and gustatory impairment for up to six months. According to the Dizziness Handicap Inventory, balance disorders were less noticed: Overall, about 40% of the patients during COVID-19 and nearly all patients recovered within six months. After COVID-19, clinical tests revealed that 75% were suffering from hyposomnia\/anosmia, and 20% of all patients reported mild hypogeusia for up to six months. Vestibular disorders and hearing impairment rarely\/did not occur. Females were significantly more affected by sensory impairments than males. Conclusions: COVID-19 particularly caused olfactory and gustatory impairment; balance disorders were present too; vestibular and auditory symptoms were negligible.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v14050849","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,24]],"date-time":"2022-04-24T02:22:02Z","timestamp":1650766922000},"page":"849","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":30,"title":["Post-COVID-19 Impairment of the Senses of Smell, Taste, Hearing, and Balance"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9751-323X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sonja","family":"Ludwig","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University Hospital Mannheim, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Theodor-Kutzer-Ufer 1-3, 68167 Mannheim, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Angela","family":"Schell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University Hospital Mannheim, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Theodor-Kutzer-Ufer 1-3, 68167 Mannheim, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michelle","family":"Berkemann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University Hospital Mannheim, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Theodor-Kutzer-Ufer 1-3, 68167 Mannheim, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4512-0263","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Frederic","family":"Jungbauer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University Hospital Mannheim, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Theodor-Kutzer-Ufer 1-3, 68167 Mannheim, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lena","family":"Zaubitzer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University Hospital Mannheim, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Theodor-Kutzer-Ufer 1-3, 68167 Mannheim, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lena","family":"Huber","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University Hospital Mannheim, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Theodor-Kutzer-Ufer 1-3, 68167 Mannheim, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christian","family":"Warken","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University Hospital Mannheim, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Theodor-Kutzer-Ufer 1-3, 68167 Mannheim, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Valentin","family":"Held","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, University Hospital Mannheim, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Theodor-Kutzer-Ufer 1-3, 68167 Mannheim, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alexander","family":"Kusnik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine II, University Hospital Mannheim, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Theodor-Kutzer-Ufer 1-3, 68167 Mannheim, Germany"},{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Rochester Regional Health, Unity Hospital, 1555 Long Pond Rd, Rochester, NY 14626, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andreas","family":"Teufel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine II, University Hospital Mannheim, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Theodor-Kutzer-Ufer 1-3, 68167 Mannheim, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Matthias","family":"Ebert","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine II, University Hospital Mannheim, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Theodor-Kutzer-Ufer 1-3, 68167 Mannheim, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nicole","family":"Rotter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University Hospital Mannheim, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Theodor-Kutzer-Ufer 1-3, 68167 Mannheim, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2001017","article-title":"A Novel Coronavirus from Patients with Pneumonia in China, 2019","volume":"382","author":"Zhu","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(20)30120-1","article-title":"An interactive web-based dashboard to track COVID-19 in real time","volume":"20","author":"Dong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.25757","article-title":"COVID-19 patients\u2019 clinical characteristics, discharge rate, and fatality rate of meta-analysis","volume":"92","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"948.e1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2020.04.040","article-title":"Clinical characteristics of asymptomatic and symptomatic patients with mild COVID-19","volume":"26","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.08.028","article-title":"Effects of COVID-19 on the Nervous System","volume":"183","author":"Iadecola","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"518","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2020.00518","article-title":"Neurological Manifestations of COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2): A Review","volume":"11","author":"Ahmed","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1074","DOI":"10.1055\/a-1164-4323","article-title":"COVID-19: A neurological point-of-view","volume":"145","author":"Simon","year":"2020","journal-title":"Dtsch. Med. Wochenschr."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1177\/0145561320959573","article-title":"Dizziness and COVID-19","volume":"100","author":"Saniasiaya","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ear Nose Throat J."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1975.03260060037015","article-title":"Herpes simplex virus in idiopathic facial paralysis (Bell palsy)","volume":"233","author":"Adour","year":"1975","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2020.03.031","article-title":"Nervous system involvement after infection with COVID-19 and other coronaviruses","volume":"87","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1093\/chemse\/22.1.39","article-title":"\u2018Sniffin\u2019 sticks\u2019: Olfactory performance assessed by the combined testing of odor identification, odor discrimination and olfactory threshold","volume":"22","author":"Hummel","year":"1997","journal-title":"Chem. Senses"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"540","DOI":"10.1007\/s00106-016-0150-x","article-title":"The Freiburg speech intelligibility test: A pillar of speech audiometry in German-speaking countries","volume":"64","author":"Hoth","year":"2016","journal-title":"HNO"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1134","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0b013e3181bacf85","article-title":"The video head impulse test: Diagnostic accuracy in peripheral vestibulopathy","volume":"73","author":"MacDougall","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1999.tb09187.x","article-title":"Assessing otolith function by the subjective visual vertical","volume":"871","author":"Mast","year":"1999","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.1177\/0145561320922126","article-title":"Nightly Hypoxia Does Not Seem to Lead to Otolith Dysfunction in Patients with Obstructive Sleep Apnea","volume":"100","author":"Birk","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ear Nose Throat J."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1001\/archotol.1990.01870040046011","article-title":"The development of the dizziness handicap inventory","volume":"116","author":"Jacobson","year":"1990","journal-title":"Arch. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1127","DOI":"10.1002\/alr.22680","article-title":"Prevalence and reversibility of smell dysfunction measured psychophysically in a cohort of COVID-19 patients","volume":"10","author":"Moein","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. Forum Allergy Rhinol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1002\/lary.29383","article-title":"COVID-19: Recovery from Chemosensory Dysfunction. A Multicentre study on Smell and Taste","volume":"131","author":"Niklassen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Laryngoscope"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1159\/000511436","article-title":"Short-Term Follow-Up of Self-Isolated COVID-19 Patients with Smell and Taste Dysfunction in Greece: Two Phenotypes of Recovery","volume":"82","author":"Konstantinidis","year":"2020","journal-title":"ORL J. Otorhinolaryngol. Relat. Spec."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Printza, A., Katotomichelakis, M., Valsamidis, K., Metallidis, S., Panagopoulos, P., Panopoulou, M., Petrakis, V., and Constantinidis, J. (2021). Smell and Taste Loss Recovery Time in COVID-19 Patients and Disease Severity. J. Clin. Med., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm10050966"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"404","article-title":"Time scale for resolution of olfactory dysfunction in COVID-19","volume":"58","author":"Speth","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rhinology"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3325","DOI":"10.1007\/s00405-020-06590-8","article-title":"Objective gustatory and olfactory dysfunction in COVID-19 patients: A prospective cross-sectional study","volume":"278","author":"Cornelius","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. Arch. Otorhinolaryngol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2020.06.032","article-title":"Massive transient damage of the olfactory epithelium associated with infection of sustentacular cells by SARS-CoV-2 in golden Syrian hamsters","volume":"89","author":"Bryche","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1083\/jcb.27.2.263","article-title":"Renewal of cells within taste buds","volume":"27","author":"Beidler","year":"1965","journal-title":"J. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"713","DOI":"10.1016\/0306-4522(79)90002-2","article-title":"Plasticity of connections of the olfactory sensory neuron: Regeneration into the forebrain following bulbectomy in the neonatal mouse","volume":"4","author":"Graziadei","year":"1979","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2251","DOI":"10.1007\/s00405-020-05965-1","article-title":"Olfactory and gustatory dysfunctions as a clinical presentation of mild-to-moderate forms of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19): A multicenter European study","volume":"277","author":"Lechien","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Arch. Otorhinolaryngol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1007\/s00405-018-5248-1","article-title":"Updated Sniffin\u2019 Sticks normative data based on an extended sample of 9139 subjects","volume":"276","author":"Oleszkiewicz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. Arch. Otorhinolaryngol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100899","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclinm.2021.100899","article-title":"Characteristics and predictors of acute and chronic post-COVID syndrome: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"36","author":"Iqbal","year":"2021","journal-title":"EClinicalMedicine"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"737","DOI":"10.1080\/23744235.2021.1924397","article-title":"Long COVID or post-COVID-19 syndrome: Putative pathophysiology, risk factors, and treatments","volume":"53","author":"Yong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fernandez-de-Las-Penas, C., Martin-Guerrero, J.D., Pellicer-Valero, O.J., Navarro-Pardo, E., Gomez-Mayordomo, V., Cuadrado, M.L., Arias-Navalon, J.A., Cigaran-Mendez, M., Hernandez-Barrera, V., and Arendt-Nielsen, L. (2022). Female Sex Is a Risk Factor Associated with Long-Term Post-COVID Related-Symptoms but Not with COVID-19 Symptoms: The LONG-COVID-EXP-CM Multicenter Study. J. Clin. Med., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm11020413"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1038\/s41420-021-00464-6","article-title":"Long COVID: An estrogen-associated autoimmune disease?","volume":"7","author":"Ortona","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Death Discov."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1186\/s12992-020-00589-w","article-title":"Prevalence of stress, anxiety, depression among the general population during the COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"16","author":"Salari","year":"2020","journal-title":"Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"865","article-title":"Objective Sensory Testing Methods Reveal a Higher Prevalence of Olfactory Loss in COVID-19-Positive Patients Compared to Subjective Methods: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"45","author":"Hannum","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chem. Senses"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5152","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-18963-y","article-title":"Smell and taste changes are early indicators of the COVID-19 pandemic and political decision effectiveness","volume":"11","author":"Pierron","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100575","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclinm.2020.100575","article-title":"Quantitative assessment of olfactory dysfunction accurately detects asymptomatic COVID-19 carriers","volume":"28","author":"Bhattacharjee","year":"2020","journal-title":"EClinicalMedicine"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1097\/MAO.0000000000002013","article-title":"Peripheral Vestibular Disorders: An Epidemiologic Survey in 70 Million Individuals","volume":"40","author":"Biesdorf","year":"2019","journal-title":"Otol. Neurotol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"898","DOI":"10.1212\/01.wnl.0000175987.59991.3d","article-title":"Epidemiology of vestibular vertigo A neurotologic survey of the general population","volume":"65","author":"Neuhauser","year":"2005","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2013.00029","article-title":"The epidemiology of vertigo, dizziness, and unsteadiness and its links to co-morbidities","volume":"4","author":"Bisdorff","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1111","DOI":"10.1097\/MAO.0000000000002032","article-title":"Assessment of vestibulo-ocular reflex gain and catch-up saccades during vestibular rehabilitation","volume":"39","author":"Navari","year":"2018","journal-title":"Otol. Neurotol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e10","DOI":"10.1097\/MAO.0000000000002860","article-title":"Bilateral Sudden Sensorineural Hearing Loss and Intralabyrinthine Hemorrhage in a Patient With COVID-19","volume":"42","author":"Chern","year":"2021","journal-title":"Otol. Neurotol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e238419","DOI":"10.1136\/bcr-2020-238419","article-title":"Sudden irreversible hearing loss post COVID-19","volume":"13","author":"Koumpa","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMJ Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"e8918","article-title":"A case of COVID-19-induced vestibular neuritis","volume":"12","author":"Malayala","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2192","DOI":"10.1007\/s12031-020-01767-6","article-title":"Evidence of Coronavirus (CoV) Pathogenesis and Emerging Pathogen SARS-CoV-2 in the Nervous System: A Review on Neurological Impairments and Manifestations","volume":"71","author":"Jha","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Mol. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/S0887-6185(00)00040-2","article-title":"A clinical taxonomy of dizziness and anxiety in the otoneurological setting","volume":"15","author":"Furman","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Anxiety Disord."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1233","DOI":"10.1007\/s00405-020-06319-7","article-title":"Otolaryngological symptoms in COVID-19","volume":"278","author":"Elibol","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. Arch. Otorhinolaryngol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3725","DOI":"10.1007\/s00405-020-06440-7","article-title":"Tinnitus and equilibrium disorders in COVID-19 patients: Preliminary results","volume":"278","author":"Viola","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. Arch. Otorhinolaryngol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1017\/cjn.2021.63","article-title":"Hearing Loss, Tinnitus, and Dizziness in COVID-19: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"49","author":"Jafari","year":"2021","journal-title":"Can. J. Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"592878","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2020.592878","article-title":"Changes in Tinnitus Experiences During the COVID-19 Pandemic","volume":"8","author":"Beukes","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102612","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjoto.2020.102612","article-title":"Symptomatology in head and neck district in coronavirus disease (COVID-19): A possible neuroinvasive action of SARS-CoV-2","volume":"41","author":"Freni","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Otolaryngol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joto.2021.01.005","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 and hearing: An audiometric analysis of COVID-19 hospitalized patients","volume":"16","author":"Xara","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Otol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"834","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2342-5","article-title":"Pathogenesis and transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in golden hamsters","volume":"583","author":"Sia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5367","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.64.11.5367-5375.1990","article-title":"Assembly of coronavirus spike protein into trimers and its role in epitope expression","volume":"64","author":"Delmas","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Virol"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12658","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01542-10","article-title":"Efficient activation of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus spike protein by the transmembrane protease TMPRSS2","volume":"84","author":"Matsuyama","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Virol"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1016","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.04.035","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 Receptor ACE2 Is an Interferon-Stimulated Gene in Human Airway Epithelial Cells and Is Detected in Specific Cell Subsets across Tissues","volume":"181","author":"Ziegler","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"596","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.2009.04480.x","article-title":"Inflammation and taste disorders: Mechanisms in taste buds","volume":"1170","author":"Wang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-020-00758-5","article-title":"Olfactory transmucosal SARS-CoV-2 invasion as a port of central nervous system entry in individuals with COVID-19","volume":"24","author":"Meinhardt","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-019-2718-9","article-title":"Brainstem dysfunction in critically ill patients","volume":"24","author":"Benghanem","year":"2020","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"691","DOI":"10.1007\/s10096-020-04056-7","article-title":"Prevalence of hyposmia and hypogeusia in 390 COVID-19 hospitalized patients and outpatients: A cross-sectional study","volume":"40","author":"Nouchi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2101147","DOI":"10.2807\/1560-7917.ES.2021.26.50.2101147","article-title":"Outbreak caused by the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant in Norway, November to December 2021","volume":"26","author":"Brandal","year":"2021","journal-title":"Euro Surveill."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"n3103","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.n3103","article-title":"COVID-19: Runny nose, headache, and fatigue are commonest symptoms of omicron, early data show","volume":"375","author":"Iacobucci","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ"}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/14\/5\/849\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:57:39Z","timestamp":1760137059000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/14\/5\/849"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,20]]},"references-count":60,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5]]}},"alternative-id":["v14050849"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v14050849","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,20]]}}}