{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,11]],"date-time":"2026-09-11T22:55:01Z","timestamp":1789167301940,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":71,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,21]],"date-time":"2022-05-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1653091200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Cooperative Research Centre for Developing Northern Australia","award":["1146237"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1146237"]}]},{"name":"National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) of Australia","award":["1146237"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1146237"]}]},{"name":"SVS Bequest Fund","award":["1146237"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1146237"]}]},{"name":"BIOHMPATHOLOGY","award":["1146237"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1146237"]}]},{"name":"Adam Gillespie Memorial Scholarship for Animal Husbandry","award":["1146237"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1146237"]}]},{"name":"IUCN-SSC Crocodile Specialist Group Fritz Huchzermeyer Veterinary Science Student Research Assistance Scheme (FHVS-SRAS)","award":["1146237"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1146237"]}]},{"name":"Advance Queensland Industry Research Fellowship","award":["1146237"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1146237"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Viruses"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The risk of flavivirus infections among the crocodilian species was not recognised until West Nile virus (WNV) was introduced into the Americas. The first outbreaks caused death and substantial economic losses in the alligator farming industry. Several other WNV disease episodes have been reported in crocodilians in other parts of the world, including Australia and Africa. Considering that WNV shares vectors with other flaviviruses, crocodilians are highly likely to also be exposed to flaviviruses other than WNV. A serological survey for flaviviral infections was conducted on saltwater crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus) at farms in the Northern Territory, Australia. Five hundred serum samples, collected from three crocodile farms, were screened using a pan-flavivirus-specific blocking ELISA. The screening revealed that 26% (n = 130\/500) of the animals had antibodies to flaviviruses. Of these, 31.5% had neutralising antibodies to WNVKUN (Kunjin strain), while 1.5% had neutralising antibodies to another important flavivirus pathogen, Murray Valley encephalitis virus (MVEV). Of the other flaviviruses tested for, Fitzroy River virus (FRV) was the most frequent (58.5%) in which virus neutralising antibodies were detected. Our data indicate that farmed crocodiles in the Northern Territory are exposed to a range of potentially zoonotic flaviviruses, in addition to WNVKUN. While these flaviviruses do not cause any known diseases in crocodiles, there is a need to investigate whether infected saltwater crocodiles can develop a viremia to sustain the transmission cycle or farmed crocodilians can be used as sentinels to monitor the dynamics of arboviral infections in tropical areas.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/v14051106","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,21]],"date-time":"2022-05-21T09:18:08Z","timestamp":1653124688000},"page":"1106","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Evidence of Infection with Zoonotic Mosquito-Borne Flaviviruses in Saltwater Crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus) in Northern Australia"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5858-0421","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gervais","family":"Habarugira","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD 4343, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jasmin","family":"Moran","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Crocodile Research, Noonamah, NT 0837, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jessica J.","family":"Harrison","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia"},{"name":"Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8895-2414","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sally R.","family":"Isberg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Crocodile Research, Noonamah, NT 0837, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0139-9829","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jody","family":"Hobson-Peters","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia"},{"name":"Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Roy A.","family":"Hall","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia"},{"name":"Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Helle","family":"Bielefeldt-Ohmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia"},{"name":"Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1099\/jgv.0.000672","article-title":"ICTV Virus Taxonomy Profile: Flaviviridae","volume":"98","author":"Simmonds","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, S., Wu, Z., Wang, M., and Cheng, A. (2017). Innate immune evasion mediated by flaviviridae non-structural proteins. Viruses, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/v9100291"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Habarugira, G., Moran, J., Colmant, A.M.G., Davis, S.S., O\u2019Brien, C.A., Hall-Mendelin, S., McMahon, J., Hewitson, G., Nair, N., and Barcelon, J. (2020). Mosquito-Independent Transmission of West Nile virus in Farmed Saltwater Crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus). Viruses, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/v12020198"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Mackenzie, J., Hall, R., Lindsay, M., Bielefeldt-Ohmann, H., and Poidinger, M. (2000). Molecular epidemiology and phylogeny of Australian arboviruses. Molecular Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases, Hodder Education."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"367","article-title":"Sentinel Chicken Surveillance Program in Australia, July 2002 to June 2003","volume":"27","author":"Broom","year":"2003","journal-title":"Commun. Dis. Intell. Q. Rep."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Harapan, H., Michie, A., Sasmono, R.T., and Imrie, A. (2020). Dengue: A Minireview. Viruses, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/v12080829"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2004.01.007","article-title":"Detection of Australasian Flavivirus encephalitic viruses using rapid fluorogenic TaqMan RT-PCR assays","volume":"117","author":"Pyke","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Virol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Webb, C.E., Porigneaux, P.G., and Durrheim, D.N. (2021). Assessing the Risk of Exotic Mosquito Incursion through an International Seaport, Newcastle, NSW, Australia. Trop. Med. Infect. Dis., 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed6010025"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.5694\/j.1326-5377.1999.tb127878.x","article-title":"Japanese encephalitis in north Queensland, Australia, 1998","volume":"170","author":"Hanna","year":"1999","journal-title":"Med. J. Aust."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1603\/0022-2585-38.4.581","article-title":"Entomological investigations of an outbreak of Japanese encephalitis virus in the Torres Strait, Australia, in 1998","volume":"38","author":"Johansen","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"van den Hurk, A.F., Pyke, A.T., Mackenzie, J.S., Hall-Mendelin, S., and Ritchie, S.A. (2019). Japanese Encephalitis Virus in Australia: From Known Known to Known Unknown. Trop. Med. Infect. Dis., 4.","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed4010038"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"(2022, April 25). Japanese Encephalitis Update. Available online: https:\/\/www.ava.com.au\/news\/japanese-encephalitis-update-23rd-march-2022\/."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Friedman, D. (2022, April 25). Japanese Encephalitis Virus Detected in Victoria, Available online: https:\/\/www.health.vic.gov.au\/health-advisories\/japanese-encephalitis-virus-detected-in-victoria."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"(2022, April 25). Japanese Encephalitis, Available online: https:\/\/www.outbreak.gov.au\/current-responses-to-outbreaks\/japanese-encephalitis#:~:text=In%20February%202022%2C%20Japanese%20encephalitis,piggeries%20across%20the%20four%20states."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.5694\/j.1326-5377.1986.tb101087.x","article-title":"Illness caused by a Kokobera-like virus in south-eastern Australia","volume":"145","author":"Boughton","year":"1986","journal-title":"Med. J. Aust."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.5694\/j.1326-5377.1993.tb137778.x","article-title":"Arbovirus infections of humans in high-risk areas of south-eastern Australia: A continuing study","volume":"159","author":"Hawkes","year":"1993","journal-title":"Med. J. Aust."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1111\/avj.12018","article-title":"Descriptive overview of the 2011 epidemic of arboviral disease in horses in Australia","volume":"91","author":"Roche","year":"2013","journal-title":"Aust. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Selvey, L.A., Dailey, L., Lindsay, M., Armstrong, P., Tobin, S., Koehler, A.P., Markey, P.G., and Smith, D.W. (2014). The changing epidemiology of Murray Valley encephalitis in Australia: The 2011 outbreak and a review of the literature. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002656"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Selvey, L.A., Johansen, C.A., Broom, A.K., Ant\u00e3o, C., Lindsay, M.D., Mackenzie, J.S., and Smith, D.W. (2014). Rainfall and sentinel chicken seroconversions predict human cases of Murray Valley encephalitis in the north of Western Australia. BMC Infect. Dis., 14.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-014-0672-3"},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"39","article-title":"Reappearance of human cases due to Murray Valley encephalitis virus and Kunjin virus in central Australia after an absence of 26 years","volume":"26","author":"Brown","year":"2002","journal-title":"Commun. Dis. Intell. Q. Rep."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"792","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1805.111720","article-title":"Characterization of virulent west nile virus kunjin strain, australia, 2011","volume":"18","author":"Frost","year":"2012","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Habarugira, G., Suen, W.W., Hobson-Peters, J., Hall, R.A., and Bielefeldt-Ohmann, H. (2020). West Nile Virus: An Update on Pathobiology, Epidemiology, Diagnostics, Control and \u201cOne Health\u201d Implications. Pathogens, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens9070589"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1111\/avj.12862","article-title":"First evidence of Kunjin strain of West Nile virus associated with saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) skin lesions","volume":"97","author":"Isberg","year":"2019","journal-title":"Aust. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hadfield, J., Brito, A.F., Swetnam, D.M., Vogels, C.B.F., Tokarz, R.E., Andersen, K.G., Smith, R.C., Bedford, T., and Grubaugh, N.D. (2019). Twenty years of West Nile virus spread and evolution in the Americas visualized by Nextstrain. PLoS Pathog., 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1008042"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1307","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2008.07.004","article-title":"West Nile virus in the Americas","volume":"92","author":"Petersen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Med. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.5694\/j.1326-5377.1985.tb119949.x","article-title":"Arbovirus infections of humans in New South Wales. Seroepidemiology of the flavivirus group of togaviruses","volume":"143","author":"Hawkes","year":"1985","journal-title":"Med. J. Aust."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"105","article-title":"Dengue or Kokobera? A case report from the Top End of the Northern Territory","volume":"22","author":"Mein","year":"1998","journal-title":"Commun. Dis. Intell."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(93)90032-L","article-title":"Possible clinical infection with Edge Hill virus","volume":"87","author":"Aaskov","year":"1993","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1038\/icb.1964.16","article-title":"Studies of Arthropod-Born Virus Infections in Queensland","volume":"42","author":"Doherty","year":"1964","journal-title":"Aust. J. Exp. Biol. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1289","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2308.161440","article-title":"Characterization of Fitzroy River Virus and Serologic Evidence of Human and Animal Infection","volume":"23","author":"Johansen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1753-6405.2008.00254.x","article-title":"Emerging viral threats to the Australian blood supply","volume":"32","author":"Dunstan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Aust. N. Z. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cleton, N.B., Godeke, G.J., Reimerink, J., Beersma, M.F., Doorn, H.R., Franco, L., Goeijenbier, M., Jimenez-Clavero, M.A., Johnson, B.W., and Niedrig, M. (2015). Spot the difference-development of a syndrome based protein microarray for specific serological detection of multiple flavivirus infections in travelers. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003580"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4432","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph10094432","article-title":"Natural exposure of horses to mosquito-borne flaviviruses in south-east Queensland, Australia","volume":"10","author":"Prow","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1002\/jez.a.10233","article-title":"Comparison of stress induced by manual restraint and immobilisation in the estuarine crocodile, Crocodylus porosus","volume":"298","author":"Franklin","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Exp. Zool. A Comp. Exp. Biol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.102438","article-title":"Capture of farmed Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus): Comparison of physiological parameters after manual capture and after capture with electrical stunning","volume":"175","author":"Pfitzer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vet. Rec."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/0166-0934(94)00105-P","article-title":"Immunodominant epitopes on the NS1 protein of MVE and KUN viruses serve as targets for a blocking ELISA to detect virus-specific antibodies in sentinel animal serum","volume":"51","author":"Hall","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Virol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6822(83)90323-9","article-title":"Identification of epitopes on the E glycoprotein of Saint Louis encephalitis virus using monoclonal antibodies","volume":"128","author":"Roehrig","year":"1983","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.81252-0","article-title":"Biological, antigenic and phylogenetic characterization of the flavivirus Alfuy","volume":"87","author":"May","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vet, L.J., Setoh, Y.X., Amarilla, A.A., Habarugira, G., Suen, W.W., Newton, N.D., Harrison, J.J., Hobson-Peters, J., Hall, R.A., and Bielefeldt-Ohmann, H. (2020). Protective Efficacy of a Chimeric Insect-Specific Flavivirus Vaccine against West Nile Virus. Vaccines, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines8020258"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a118408","article-title":"A simple method of estimating fifty per cent endpoints","volume":"27","author":"Reed","year":"1938","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.5694\/j.1326-5377.1952.tb74985.x","article-title":"Murray Valley encephalitis isolation and characterization of the aetiological agent","volume":"1","author":"French","year":"1952","journal-title":"Med. J. Aust."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1038\/icb.1979.52","article-title":"Isolation of virus strains from mosquitoes collected in Queensland, 1972-1976","volume":"57","author":"Doherty","year":"1979","journal-title":"Aust. J. Exp. Biol. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Warrilow, D., Hall-Mendelin, S., Hobson-Peters, J., Prow, N.A., Allcock, R., and Hall, R.A. (2014). Complete coding sequences of three members of the kokobera group of flaviviruses. Genome Announc., 2.","DOI":"10.1128\/genomeA.00890-14"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(68)90095-3","article-title":"Studies of the epidemiology of arthropod-borne virus infections at Mitchell River Mission, Cape York Peninsula, North Queensland: II. Arbovirus infections of mosquitoes, man and domestic fowls, 1963\u20131966","volume":"62","author":"Doherty","year":"1968","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Westlake, D., Bielefeldt-Ohmann, H., Prow, N.A.A., and Hall, R.A.A. (2021). Novel Flavivirus Attenuation Markers Identified in the Envelope Protein of Alfuy Virus. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13020147"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1353","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2208.151719","article-title":"Virulence and evolution of West Nile virus, Australia, 1960\u20132012","volume":"22","author":"Prow","year":"2016","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1462","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.049940-0","article-title":"Genetic divergence among members of the Kokobera group of flaviviruses supports their separation into distinct species","volume":"94","author":"May","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1038\/icb.1963.2","article-title":"Studies of arthropod-borne virus infections in Queensland. III. Isolation and characterization of virus strains from wild-caught mosquitoes in North Queensland","volume":"41","author":"Doherty","year":"1963","journal-title":"Aust. J. Exp. Biol. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1165","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2006.75.1165","article-title":"Characterization of Sepik and Entebbe bat viruses closely related to yellow fever virus","volume":"75","author":"Kuno","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pauvolid-Corr\u00eaa, A., Campos, Z., Juliano, R., Velez, J., Nogueira, R.M., and Komar, N. (2014). Serological evidence of widespread circulation of West Nile virus and other flaviviruses in equines of the Pantanal, Brazil. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002706"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1186\/1297-9716-42-100","article-title":"Viruses in reptiles","volume":"42","author":"Ariel","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"887","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0907.020816","article-title":"West Nile virus infection in crocodiles","volume":"9","author":"Steinman","year":"2003","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2014.00146","article-title":"The Australian Public is Still Vulnerable to Emerging Virulent Strains of West Nile Virus","volume":"2","author":"Prow","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2150","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2017.02150","article-title":"Neglected Australian Arboviruses and Undifferentiated Febrile Illness: Addressing Public Health Challenges Arising From the \u2018Developing Northern Australia\u2019 Government Policy","volume":"8","author":"Gyawali","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"968","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apjtm.2016.07.028","article-title":"The phylogenetic and evolutionary history of Kokobera virus","volume":"9","author":"Blasi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Asian Pac. J. Trop. Med."},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"263","article-title":"Isolation of Sepik vims from Papua New Guinea","volume":"8","author":"Nisbet","year":"2001","journal-title":"Arbovirus Res. Aust."},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"35","article-title":"Arboviruses of human health significance in Papua New Guinea","volume":"55","author":"Jonduo","year":"2012","journal-title":"PNG Med. J."},{"key":"ref_58","first-page":"737","article-title":"Vector competence of three Australian mosquitoes, Verrallina carmenti, Verraullina lineata, and Mansonia septempunctata (Diptera: Culicidae), for Ross River virus","volume":"45","author":"Webb","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1087","DOI":"10.1099\/jgv.0.000430","article-title":"A newly discovered flavivirus in the yellow fever virus group displays restricted replication in vertebrates","volume":"97","author":"Colmant","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Colmant, A.M.G., Bielefeldt-Ohmann, H., Vet, L.J., O\u2019Brien, C.A., Bowen, R.A., Hartwig, A.E., Davis, S., Piyasena, T.B.H., Habarugira, G., and Harrison, J.J. (2020). NS4\/5 mutations enhance flavivirus Bamaga virus infectivity and pathogenicity in vitro and in vivo. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0008166"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaslow, R.A., Stanberry, L.R., and Le Duc, J.W. (2014). Flaviviruses: Yellow Fever, Japanese B, West Nile, and Others. Viral Infections of Humans: Epidemiology and Control, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4899-7448-8"},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"1","article-title":"Vectors vs. humans in Australia--who is on top down under? An update on vector-borne disease and research on vectors in Australia","volume":"23","author":"Russell","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Soc. Vector Ecol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1326-6756.2004.00436.x","article-title":"Medical entomology: Changes in the spectrum of mosquito-borne disease in Australia and other vector threats and risks, 1972\u20132004","volume":"43","author":"Russell","year":"2004","journal-title":"Aust. J. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"786","DOI":"10.1603\/0022-2585-39.5.786","article-title":"Isolation of arboviruses from mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) collected from the Gulf Plains region of northwest Queensland, Australia","volume":"39","author":"Nisbet","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Warchot, A. (2013). Mt Todd Mine Baseline Biting Insect Assessment, February 2012 to January 2013, Medical Entomology Department of Health."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.00334","article-title":"Cross-Reactive Immunity Among Flaviviruses","volume":"11","author":"Rathore","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaax7888","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.aax7888","article-title":"A recombinant platform for flavivirus vaccines and diagnostics using chimeras of a new insect-specific virus","volume":"11","author":"Harrison","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Harvey, E., Rose, K., Eden, J.S., Lo, N., Abeyasuriya, T., Shi, M., Doggett, S.L., and Holmes, E.C. (2019). Extensive Diversity of RNA Viruses in Australian Ticks. J. Virol., 93.","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01358-18"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1439-0388.2005.00549.x","article-title":"Quantitative analysis of production traits in saltwater crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus): II. age at slaughter","volume":"122","author":"Isberg","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Anim. Breed. Genet."},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"Hartley\u2019s Creek Crocodile Adventures (2022, January 01). Hartley\u2019s Creek Crocodile Farming. Available online: https:\/\/www.crocodileadventures.com\/sustainability\/hartleys-creek-crocodile-farm."},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"460","article-title":"Effects of Irrigation and Rainfall on the Population Dynamics of Rift Valley Fever and Other Arbovirus Mosquito Vectors in the Epidemic-Prone Tana River County, Kenya","volume":"54","author":"Sang","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."}],"container-title":["Viruses"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/14\/5\/1106\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:16:01Z","timestamp":1760138161000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4915\/14\/5\/1106"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,21]]},"references-count":71,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5]]}},"alternative-id":["v14051106"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v14051106","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4915"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4915","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,21]]}}}